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TRANSACTIONS 


OF     THE 


/ 


AMERICAN 
PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


HELD       AT 


PHILADELPHIA, 


FOR     PROMOTING 


USEFUL     KNOWLEDGE. 


VOLUME    ir. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

PRINTED  AND   SOLD   BY   ROBERT  AirKEN,  AT   POPE's  HEAD 
IN    MARKET    STREET. 


M.DCCLXXXVI. 


(     iii     ) 


ADVERTISEMENT. 

■^  H  E  peculiar  circumftances  of  Americaj, 
fmce  the  publication  of  the  firll  volume 
of  the  Tranfa6lions  of  this  Society,  will  be  a 
fufficient  apology  for  the  long  delay  in  pub- 
liiliing  a  fecond.  The  Society  having,  how- 
ever, refumed  their  former  labours  in  pro- 
moting ufeful  knowledge,  which  were  necef- 
farily  fufpended  during  the  late  war:  and 
finding  themfelves  in  poileffion  of  materials 
more  than  fufficient  for  a  fecond  volume  of 
Tranfadions,  appointed  a  Committee  to  felecl 
fuch  pieces  as  might  be  moil  proper  for  that 
purpofe  :  The  Committee  have  made  that  fe- 
le6lion,'  which  is  here  offered  to  the  public. 
Several  pieces  flill  remain  worthy  of  publica- 
tion, which  will  probably  appear  in  a  future 
volume. 


It 


IV  Advertisement. 

It  may  not  be  amifs  in  this  place  to  infeit 
the  Rules  which  the  Society  have  adopted  for 
the  diredlion  of  their  Committees  in  the  choice 
of  papers  for  publication. 

First,  "  That  the  grounds  of  the  Com- 
"  mittee's  choice  of  papers  for  the  prefs,  fhould 
"  always  be  the  importance  or  fingularity  of 
*'  the  fubjefts,  or  the  advantageous  manner  of 
"  treating  them,  without  pretending  to  an- 
*'  fwer,  or  to  make  the  fociety  anfwerable, 
*'  for  the  certainty  of  the  fa6ls,  or  propriety 
*'  of  the  reafonings,  contained  in  the  feveral 
**  papers  fo  publifhed,  which  muft  Hill  reft  on 
*'  the  credit  or  judgment  of  their  refpedlive 
"  authors. 

Secondly,  "  That  neither  the  Society,  nor 
**  the  Committee  of  the  prefs,  do  ever  give 
"  their  opinion  as  a  body,  upon  any  paper 
"  they  may  publilh,  or  upon  any  fubje6t  of 
*'  Art  or  Nature  that  comes  before  them." 


LAWS 


y^ 


r  V  ) 

LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS^ 

OF      THE 

American    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY' 

Held  at  P HILADELP HIA,  for  promoting 

USEFUL   KNOB' LEDGE. 

'WO  focieties  having  formerly  fubfifted  in  Philadel- 
phia, whole  views  and  ends  v\'ere  the  fame,  viz. 
"  the  adiiaticement  of  iifefid  knoivledge"  it  was  judged 
that  their  union  would  be  of  public  advantage;  and  they 
were  accordingly  united  January  2d,  1769,  by  a  certain 
Fundamental  Agreement ;   the  chief  Articles  of  which  are, 

Fhjl^  That  the  name  of  the  United  Society  fhall  be 
The  American  Philofophical  Society-,  held  at  Philadelphia., 
for  promoting  iijeful  Knozvledge. 

Secondly.,  That  there  fhall  be  the  following  officers  of 
the  fociety,  viz.  one  Patron-,  one  Preftdent-,  three  Vice- 
PrefidentSt  one  Treafurer-,  four  Secretaries.,  and  three  Cu- 
rators. 

Thirdly.,  That  all  the  above  officers  fhall  be  chofea 
annually  by  ballot,  at  the  firft  meeting  of  the  Society  in 
January  ;  excepting  only  that  inflead  of  eletting  a  Patron, 
the  Governor  of  the  Province  be  requefted  to  be  Patron, 

Other  Laws  were  to  be  made  by  the  United  Society ; 
and  accordingly  the  following  LAWS,  &c.  were  pafl'ed 
February  3d,  1769. 

L  Of  the  annual  Payments  to  he  made  by  Members. 

Every  Member  of  this  Society  fhall  fubfcribe  Ten  Shil- 
lings yearly,   to  be  applied  by  the  Society  to  fuch  purpo- 

fes 


VI 


L     A    W     S,       See. 


fes  as  they  fhall  diredl;  and  no  Member  fliall  be  intitled 
to  a  vote  in  the  annual  eleftion  of  oflicers,  unlefs  it  ap- 
pears that  he  has  paid  into  the  hands  of  the  Treafurer, 
the  fubfcription  of  the  preceding  year,  and  all  former 
arrears,  if  any  there  were. 

Every  Member  hereafter  to  be  chofen,  agreeable  to  the 
Laws  of  this  Society,  fhall  pay  Ten  Shillings  admiflion  mo- 
ney, and  allb  fubfcribe  for  the  yearly  payment  of  Ten 
ShillmgSt  before  he  is  intitled  to  have  any  vote  in  the  bu- 
fmefs  of  the  Society  at  their  meetings. 

II.  Of  the  Ele^ion  of  Members. 

The  eledtion  of  new  Members  fhall  be  by  ballot,  and 
that  only  on  the  third  Friday  in  the  months  of  January, 
April,  July  and  Odober;  and  in  order  to  fuch  eledion  at 
leaft  twenty  Members  muft  be  prefent. 

Any  Member  may,  at  any  meeting,  propofe  fuch  per- 
fon  or  perfons,  as  he  thinks  proper  to  be  a  Member  or 
Members  of  this  Society  ;  but  no  perfon  fhall  be  ballotted 
for,  unlefs  his  name,  together  with  the  name  or  names  of 
the  Member  or  Members  who  propofed  him,  has  been  fix- 
ed up  by  the  Secretaries  for  the  view  of  the  Society,  at 
the  two  meetings  preceding  the  time  of  eledion.  Nor 
fhall  any  perfon  be  deemed  duly  chofen  unlefs  three-fourths 
of  the  votes  of  the  whole  Members  be  in  his  favour. 

III.  Of  the  Officers-,  and  manner  of  their  ele^ion. 

The  eledion  of  fuch  Officers  as  are  to  be  chofen  in  this 
Society,  fhall  be  on  the  firft  Friday  in  January  every  year, 
by  ballot  or  written  ticket,  between  the  hours  of  two  and 
five  in  the  afternoon,  at  fuch  place  in  this  city  as  ihall  be 
fixed  by  the  Society  at  their  previous  meeting  on  the  third 
Friday  in  December  every  year  ;  of  which  notice  fhall  be 
given  in  the  Gazette,  or  fuch  other  public  papers  as  the 

Society 


LAWS,      &c.  vll 

Society  fhall  order,  at  leaft  one  week  before  the  day  of 
ele£lion. 

Before  opening  the  ele£lion,  the  company  that  fhall  be 
met  at  half  an  hour  after  two,  fhall  appoint  three  Mem- 
bers of  the  Society  as  judges  of  the  eledlion,  and  alfo  two 
clerks  or  fecretaries,  for  taking  down  the  names  of  the 
voters.  And  in  cafe  of  an  equality  of  votes  for  any  Offi- 
cer, after  cafling  up  the  ballots,  the  decifion  fhall  be  by 
lots,  to  be  drawn  by  one  of  the  judges. 

IV.  Of  the  Preftdent. 

The  Prefident  is  to  prcfide  at  all  meetings,  to  preferve 
order,  to  regulate  the  debates,  and  to  flate  and  put  que- 
ftions,  agreeable  to  the  fenfe  and  intention  of  the  Members, 

V.  Of  the  V'lce-Prefidents, 

In  the  abfence  of  the  Prefident^  his  duty  fhall  devolve 
on  the  Vice-Pref  debits.,  fo  that  they  fhall  prefide  alternate- 
ly at  meetings.  But  if  the  Vice-Prefident,  whofe  turn  it 
is  to  prefide  at  any  meeting,  fhould  be  abfent,  his  place 
fliall  be  fupplied  by  any  of  the  other  Vice-Prefidents,  who 
fhall  be  prefent,  according  as  he  may  be  next  in  turn.  If 
only  one  Vice-Prefident  be  prefent,  he  fhall  of  courfe  pre- 
fide ;  and  if  neither  the  Prefident,  nor  any  Vice-Prefident 
be  prefent,  the  Members  met,  flaall  appoint  one  of  their 
number  to  take  the  chair  for  that  meeting. 

VI.  Of  the  Treafurer. 

The  Treafurer  fliall  receive  the  fubfcriptions  of  the 
Members,  and  all  other  monies  that  may  become  due  to 
the  Society,  and  fliall  pay  the  fame  agreeable  to  their  or- 
ders, certified  to  him  by  the  Prefident,  Vice-Prefident  or 
Member,  who  was  in  the  chair  when  the  order  was  made. 

The 


■vrii 


LAWS,       &c. 


The  Treafurer  fi^all  keep  a  regular  account  of  all  monies 
received  and  paid  by  him  as  aforefaid;  and  once  every 
year,  or  oftener  if  required  by  the  Society,  he  fliall  render 
an  account  to  them  of  the  ftock  in  his  hands,  and  the  dif- 
burfements  made  by  their  order,  and  fhall  deliver  up  to 
his  fucceflbr  the  books  and  all  papers  belonging  to  them, 
together  with  the  balance  of  cafli  in  his  hands.  And  for 
the  faithful  difcharge  of  his  truft,  he  fhall,  before  he  en- 
ters on  his  office,  give  bond  and  fecurity  to  the  Prefident 
and  Vice-Prefidents,  in  double  the  fum  which  they,  or 
any  three  of  them,  fhall  judge  he  may  probably  become 
entrufted  with  during  his  faid  office. 

VII.  Of  the  Secretaries. 

The  Secretaries  fhall  fo  fettle  matters  as  to  take  equal 
fhares  of  all  bufinefs,  and  fo  as  that  two  of  them  fliall 
ferve  at  every  meeting,  viz.  one  to  take  the  minutes,  and 
one  to  read  all  letters  and  papers  that  may  be  communi-  - 
cated  to  the  Society.  It  is  alfo  the  bufmefs  of  the  two 
Secretaries  of  each  particular  meeting,  to  copy  into  the 
minute-book  the  proceedings  of  that  meeting,  in  order  to 
produce  the  fame  fair  to  the  next  meeting.  They  are  fur- 
ther to  copy  into  the  proper  books  all  fuch  letters,  papers 
and  effays,  as  the  Society  may  think  fit  to  preferve  on  re- 
cord, and  to  have  the  fame  ready  to  be  laid  before  the 
next  meeting. 

The  other  two  Secretaries  are,  in  the  mean  while,  to 
give  notice  to  new  members  of  their  eledlion,  and  agree- 
able to  the  dire£i:ions  of  the  Society,  to  write  or  anfvver 
letters;  and,  in  general,  io  7na7iage  all  matters  cf  cor re- 
J'pondence. 

The  Secretaries  may,  for  their  own  eafe,  change  places; 
fo  that  the  two  who  have  ferved  as  cor ref ponding  Secreta-- 
riest  for  one  month  or  limited  time,  fliall  take  their  turn 
to  ferve  for  the  like  time  as  fittim^  or  attendinty-  Secretaries. 

-^       ^  ^       WW.  Of 


L    A    W     S,       &CC.  ix 

VIII.  0/  the  Curators. 

The  bufinefs  of  the  Curators  (hall  be  to  take  charge  of, 
and  preferve,  all  Specbnens  of  natural  Produciions,  whe- 
ther of  th^  Ani?iial,  Vegetable  or  FoJJll  kingdom  ;  all  mo- 
dels of  machines  and  inftruments,  and  all  other  matters 
and  things  belonging  to  the  Society,  which  ihall  be  com- 
mitted to  them  ;  to  clafs  and  arrange  them  in  their  pro- 
per order,  and  keep  an  exadl  lift  of  them,  with  the  names 
of  the  refpedllve  donors,  in  a  book  provided  for  that  pur- 
pofe;  which  book  fhall  be  laid  before  the  Society,  as  often 
as  called  for. 

The  Curators,  on  entering  upon  their  office,  fhall  give 
fuch  a  receipt  for  every  thing  that  is  committed  to  their 
charge,  as  the  Society  fhall  think  proper;  and,  at  the  end 
of  their  term,  fhall  deliver  up  the  fame  to  their  fucceflorsi 
For  the  faithful  performance  of  their  duty,  and  of  the 
truft  repofed  in  them,  they  fhall  give  bond  to  the  Prefi- 
dents  and  Vice-Prefidents,  in  fuch  a  fum  as  they,  or  any 
three  of  them,  fhall  require. 

IX.  Of  the  Meetings  of  the  Society. 

The  ordinary  meetings  of  the  Society  fhall  be  on  the 
firft  and  third  Fridays  of  every  month,  from  October  to 
May,  both  inclufive,  at  fix  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and 
on  the  third  Friday  in  each  of  the  other  four  months  at 
feven  o'clock. 

No  meeting  fhall  be  continued  after  ten  o'clock,  nor 
any  new  matter  be  introduced  by  motion,  or  otherwife, 
after  nine  o'clock. 

X.  Of  the  Difpofition  of  Money  ^  and  making  neiv  Laws. 

No  part  of  the  Society's  flock  fhall  be  difpofed  of  in 
Premiimst  or  otherwife,  nor  fhall  any  new  laws  be  made, 

b  until 


X  LAWS,     &c. 

until  the  fame  have  been  propofed  at  one  meeting,  and 
are  agreed  to  by  two-thirds  of  twenty  or  more  Mem- 
bers prefent  at  a  fubfequent  meeting. 

XI.  Of  other  Proceedings  of  the  Society. 

No  queftion  fhall  be  put  on  a  motion.^  unlefs  the  motion 
hefeconded ;  and  the  determination  of  any  quellion  fhall 
be  by  ballot^  inftead  of  open  fufFrage,  if  defired  by  any 
four  Members.  In  cafe  of  an  equaHty  of  votes  on  any 
queftion,  the  fame  fhall  be  deferred  to  another  meeting. 

When  any  Member  fpeaks  he  fhall  ftand  up,  and  ad- 
drefs  himfelf  to  the  chair,  and  the  reft  fhall  remain  filent 
in  their  feats.  When  two  or  more  offer  to  fpeak  at  the 
fame  time,  the  prefiding  Member,  in  that,  as  in  other 
matters  of  order,  fhall  regulate  and  determine  who  fhall 
fpeak  firft. 

Xll.  Of  Committees.. 

The  Members  of  this  Society  fhall  be  clalTed  into  one 
or  more  of  the  following  Committees. 

1.  Geography,  Mathematics,  Natural  Philofophy  and 
Aftronomy. 

2.  Medicine  and  Anatomy. 

3.  Natural  Hiftory  and  Chemlftry. 

4.  Trade  and  Commerce. 

5.  Mechanics  and  Architefture. 

6.  Hufbandry  and  American  Improvements. 

Thefe  Committees  fhall  meet  on  their  own  adjournments, 
and  at  fuch  other  times  as  the  Society  fhall  appoint,  for 
the  confideration  of  any  matters  referred  to  them,  and 
fhall  have  power  to  chufe  their  own  chairman.  But  no 
Committee,  as  fuch,  fhall  take  up  any  new  bufinefs  of  the 
Society,  but  fhall  confine  themfelves  only  to  the  fubjedls 
for  which  they  are  appointed,  and  to  matters  referred  to 
them  by  the  Society. 


(     xl     ) 


An  ACT  for  Incorporating  the  American  Philofophical 

Society i  held  at  Philadelphia.,  for  Promoting  ufeful 

Kno'uoledge. 

WHEREAS  the  cultivation  of  ufeful  knowledge, 
and  the  advancement  of  the  liberal  arts  and 
fciences  in  any  country,  have  the  moft  diredt  tendency  to- 
wards the  improvement  of  agriculture,  the  enlargement  of 
trade,  the  eafe  and  comfort  of  life,  the  ornament  of  Ibci- 
ety,  and  the  increafe  and  happinefs  of  mankind.  And 
ivhereas  this  country  of  North-America,  which  the  good- 
nefs  of  Providence  hath  given  us  to  inherit,  from  the  vaft- 
nefs  of  its  extent,  the  variety  of  its  climate,  the  fertility 
of  its  Toil,  the  yet  unexplored  treafures  of  its  boweh,  the 
multitude  of  its  rivers,  lakes,  bays,  inlets,  and  other  con- 
veniencies  of  navigation,  offers  to  thefe  United  States  one 
of  the  richeft  lubjeds  of  cultivation,  ever  prefented  to  any 
people  upon  earth.  And  inhereas  the  experience  of  ages 
fhews  that  improvements  of  a  public  nature,  are  beft  car- 
ried on  by  focieties  of  liberal  and  ingenious  men,  uniting 
their  labours,  without  regard  to  nation,  fedt  or  party,  in 
one  grand  purfuit,  alike  interefting  to  all,  whereby  mu- 
tual prejudices  are  worn  off,  a  humane  and  philofophical 
fpirit  is  cherifhed,  and  youth  are  ftimulated  to  a  laudable 
diligence  and  emulation  in  the  purfuit  of  wilclom.  And 
ivhereas-,  upon  thefe  principles,  divers  public  fpirited  gen- 
tlemen in  Pennfylvania,  and  other  American  ftates,  did 
heretofore  unite  themfelves,  under  certain  regulations, 
into  one  voluntary  fociety,  by  the  name  of  "  The  Ameri- 
*'  can  Philofophical  Society,  held  at  Philadelphia  for  pro- 
*'  ^noting  ufeful  Knoivledge,''^  and  by  their  fuccefsful  la- 

b  2  hours 


xu 


CHARTER. 


hours  and  invefligations,  to  the  great  credit  of  America, 
have  extended  their  reputation  fo  far,  that  men  of  the  ftrft 
eminence  in  the  republic  of  letters  in  the  moft  civilized 
nations  in  Europe,  have  done  honour  to  their  publications, 
and  defired  to  be  enrolled  among  their  members.  And 
ivhereas  the  Society,  after  having  been  long  interrupted 
in  their  laudable  purfuits  by  the  calamities  of  war,  and. 
the  dirtrefles  ot  our  country,  have  found  means  to  revive 
their  defign,  in  hopes  of  being  able  to  profecute  the  fame 
with  their  former  fuccefs,  and  being  further  encouraged 
therein  by  the  public,  for  which  purpofe  they  have  pray- 
ed us,  The  Reprefentati'ues  of  the  Freemen  of  the  Common- 
ivealth  of  P ennfyl'vania^  that  they  may  be  created  one 
body  politic  and  corporate  forever,  with  iuch  powers,  pri- 
vileges, and  immunities,  as  may  be  neceflary  for  anfwer- 
ing  the  valuable  purpofes  which  the  faid  Society  had  ori- 
ginally in  view. 

Wherefore-,  in  order  to  encourage  the  faid  Society  in  tha 
profecution  and  advancement  of  all  ufeful  branches  of 
knowledge,  for  the  benefit  of  their  country,  and  of  man- 
kind ;  Be  it  enatied.,  and  it  is  hereby  enacted.,  by  the  Re^ 
prefentatives  of  the  Freemen  of  the  Commonivealth  of  Penn^ 
fyl'uama  in  General  AffembJy  met.,  and  by  the  authority  of 
the  fame.,  That  the  members  of  the  faid  American  Philo- 
fophical  Society  heretofore  voluntarily  alfociated  for  pro- 
moting ufeful  knowledge,  and  fuch  other  perfons  as  have 
been  duly  eleded  members  and  officers  of  the  fame  agree- 
ably to  the  fundamental  laws  and  regulations  of  the  faid 
Society,  comprifed  in  twelve  fetftions,  prefixed  to  their 
volume  of  Tranfadions,  publiflied  in  Philadelphia  by  Wil-^ 
liam  and  Thomas  Bradford.,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one 
thoufand  feven  hundred  and  feventy-one  ;  and  who  fhall 
in  all  rel'pe€ts  conform  thcmfelves  to  the  faid  laws  and  re- 
gulations, and  Inch  other  laws,  regulations  and  ordinan- 
ces, as  fliall  hereafter  be  duly  made  and  enadted  by  the 
faid  Society,  according  to  the  tenor  hereof,  be,  and  for- 
ever 


CHARTER.  xHJ 

ever  hereafter  fhall  be  one  body  corporate  and  politic  in' 
deed,  by  the  name  and  Ityle  ot  The  American  Philofophi-' 
cal  Society-,  held  at  P biladelpbia,  for  promoting  ufcfiil 
knowledge.,  and  by  the  fame  name  they  are  hereby  con- 
ftituted  and  confirmed  one  body  corporate  and  politic,  to 
have  perpetual  fucceilion,  and  by  the  fame  name  they  and 
their  lucceflbrs  are  hereby  declared  and  made  able  and  ca- 
pable in  law,  to  have,  hold,  receive,  and  enjoy  lands,  te- 
nements, rents,  franchiies,  hereditaments,  gifts  and  be- 
quefts  of  what  nature  foever,  in  fee-fimple,  or  for  term 
of  life,  lives,  years,  or  otherwife,  and  alfo  to  give,  grant, 
let,  fell,  alien,  or  aflign  the  fame  lands,  tenements,  here- 
ditaments, goods,  chattels,  and  premifes,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  refpedlive  gifts,  grants  and  bequefts,  made 
to  them  the  fald  Society,  and  of  their  eftate  therein. 

Froijided,  That  the  amount  of  the  clear  yearly  value 
of  fuch  real  eftate  do  not  exceed  the  value  of  ten  thoufand 
bufhels  of  good  merchantable  wheat. 

Jnd  be  it  further  enabled  by  the  authority  aforefaid., 
That  the  laid  Society  be,  and  fhall  be  for-ever  hereafter- 
able  and  capable  in  law  to  fue,  and  be  fued,  plead  and  be 
impleaded,  anfwer  and  be  anfwered  unto,  defend  and  be' 
defended,  in  all  or  any  of  the  courts  or  other  places, 
and  before  any  judges,  juiiices,  and  other  perfon  and  per— 
fons,  in  all  manner  of  adions,  luits,  complaints,  pleas,; 
caufes  and  matters,  of  what  nature  or  kind  foever,  with- 
in this  commonwealth ;  and  that  it  fhall  and  may  be  law- 
ful to  and  for  the  faid  Society,  for-evcr  hereafter  to  have 
and  ufe  one  common  leal  in  their  affairs,  and  the  fame  at 
their  will  and  pleafure  to  break,  change,  alter  and  renew. 

And  be  it  further  enaBed  by  the  authority  aforefoidy 
That  for  the  well  governing  the  faid  Society,  and  order- 
ing their  affairs,  they  fhall  have  the  following  officers, 
that  is  to  fay,  one  Patron,  who  fhall  be  his  Excellency 
the  Prefident  of  the  Supreme  Executive  Council  of  this 
commonwealth,  for  the  time  being,  and  likewifeone  Pre- 
fident, 


XlV 


CHARTER. 


fident,  three  Vice-Prefidents,  four  Secretaries,  three  Cu- 
rators, one  Treafurer,  together  with  a  Council  of  twelve 
Members  ;  and  that  on  the  firft  Friday  of  January  next, 
between  the  hours  of  two  and  five  in  the  afternoon,  as 
many  of  the  members  of  the  faid  Society  as  {hall  have  paid 
up  their  arrears  due  to  the  Society,  and  fhall  declare  their 
willingnefs  to  conform  to  the  laws,  regulations  and  ordi- 
nances of  the  Society,  then  duly  in  force,  according  to 
the  tenor  hereof,  by  fubfcribing  the  fame,  and  who  fhall 
attend  in  the  hall,  or  place  of  meeting  of  the  faid  Society, 
within  the  time  aforefaid,  fhall  choofeby  ballot,  agreeably 
to  the  fundamental  laws  and  regulations  herein  before  re- 
ferred to,  one  Prefident,  four  Secretaries,  three  Curators, 
and  one  Treafurer,  and  at  the  fame  time  and  place,  the 
Members  met  and  qualified  as  aforefaid,  fhall  in  like  man- 
ner choofe  four  Members  for  the  Council,  to  hold  their 
offices  for  one  year,  four  more  Members  for  the  Council 
to  hold  their  offices  for  two  years,  and  four  more  Mem- 
bers for  the  Council  to  hold  their  offices  for  three  years. 
And  on  the  firfi:  Friday  in  January,  which  fliall  be  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  one  thoufand  feven  hundred  and  eighty- 
two,  and  fo  likewife  on  the  firft  Friday  of  January,  yearly 
and  every  year  thereafter,  between  the  hours  of  two  and 
five  in  the  afternoon,  the  Members  of  the  faid  Society  met 
and  qualified  as  aforefaid,  fhall  choofe  one  Prefident,  three 
Vice-Prefidents,  four  Secretaries,  three  Curators  and  one 
Treafurer,  to  hold  their  refpedtive  offices  for  one  year ; 
and  four  Councilmen,  to  hold  their  offices  for  three  years. 
Provided.,    That   no  perfon  refiding  within  the  United 
States  fhall  be  capable  of  being  Prefident,  Vice-Prefident, 
Secretary,  Treafurer,  or  Member  of  the  Council,  or  of 
ele£ling  to  any  of  the  faid  offices,  who  is  not  capable  of 
elefting  and  being  clefted  to  civil  ofhces  within  the  ftate 
in  which  he  refides.     Provided  aJjoi  That  nothing  here- 
in contained,  fhall  be  confidered  as  intended  to  exclude 
any  of  the  faid  officers  or  counfellors,  whofe  times  fhall 

be 


CHARTER. 


XV 


expired,  from  being  re-eledled,  according  to  the  pleafure 
of  the  faid  Society  ;  and  of  the  day,  hours,  and  place  of 
all  fuch  ele£lions,  due  notice  fhall  be  given  by  the  Secre- 
taries, or  fome  one  of  them,  in  one  or  more  of  the  pub- 
lic news-papers  of  this  ftate,  agreeably  to  the  faid  funda- 
mental laws  and  regulations  before  referred  to. 

Ajid  be  it  further  ena^ed  by  the  authority  aforefaidy 
That  the  officers  and  council  of  the  faid  Society  fhall  be 
capable  of  exercifing  fuch  power  for  the  well  governing 
and  ordering  the  affairs  of  the  Society,  and  of  holding 
fuch  occafional  meetings  for  that  purpofe,  as  fliall  be  de- 
fcribed,  fixed,  and  determined  by  the  ifatutes,  laws,  regu- 
lations and  ordinances  of  the  laid  Society,  hereafter  to  be 
made.  Provided  alivays.  That  no  ffatute,  law,  regulati- 
on or  ordinance  fhall  ever  be  made  or  palled  by  the  faid 
Society,  or  be  binding  upon  the  Members  thereof,  or  any 
of  them,  unlefs  the  fame  hath  been  duly  propofed,  and 
fairly  drawn  up  in  writing,  at  one  flated  meeting  of  the 
Society,  and  enacfted  or  paffed  at  a  fubfequent  meeting  at 
leaft  the  fpace  of  fourteen  days  after  the  former  meeting, 
and  upon  due  notice  in  lome  of  the  public  news-papers, 
that  the  enacting  of  ffatutes  and  laws,  or  the  making  and 
pafhng  ordinances  and  regulations,  will  be  part  of  the  bu- 
finefs  of  fuch  meeting  ;  nor  rtiall  any  flatute,  law,  regu- 
lation or  ordinance  be  then  or  at  any  time  enadled  cr  paf- 
fed, unlefs  thirteen  Members  of  the  faid  Society  or  fuch 
greater  number  of  Members  as  may  be  afterwards  fixed 
by  the  rules  of  the  Society  be  prefent,  beiides  fuch  quo- 
rum of  the  officers  and  council  as  the  laws  of  the  Society 
for  the  time  being  may  require,  and  unlefs  the  fame  be 
voted  by  two-thirds  of  the  whole  body  then  prefent  ;  all 
which  ftatutes,  laws,  ordinances  and  regulations  lo  as 
aforefaid  duly  rnade,  enabled  and  palfed,  Ihall  be  binding 
upon  every  Member  of  the  faid  Society,  and  be  from  time 
to  time  inviolably  obferved,  according  to  the  tenor  and 
cffed  thereof;  provided  they  be  not  repugnant  or  con- 
trary 


Kx'i  CHARTER. 

trary  to  the  laws  of  this  commonwealth,  for  the  time  be- 
ing in  force  and  efFedl. 

A'tidivhereas  nations  truly  civilized  (however  unhappily 
at  variance  on  other  accounts)  will  never  wage  war  with 
the  arts  and  fciences  and  the  common  interefts  of  humanity. 

Be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  afore/aid.,  That 
it  fhall  and  may  be  lawful  for  the  faid  Society,  by  their 
proper  officers,  at  all  times,  whether  in  peace  or  war,  to 
correfpond  with  learned  focieties,  as  well  as  individual 
learned  men,  of  any  nation  or  country,  upon  matters 
merely  belonging  to  the  bufinefs  of  the  faid  Society  ;  fuch 
as  the  mutual  communication  of  their  difcoveries  and  pro- 
ceedings in  philofophy  and  fcience;  the  procuring  books, 
apparatus,  natural  curiofities,  and  fuch  other  articles  and 
intelligence  as  are  ufually  exchanged  between  learned  bo- 
dies for  furthering  their  common  purfuits.  Pro'vided  al- 
*wayst  That  fuch  correfpondence  of  the  faid  Society  be  at 
all  times  open  to  the  infpedlion  of  the  Supreme  Executive 
Council  of  this  commonwealth. 

(Signed)  JOHN   BAYARD,  Speaker. 

EnaSled  into  a  Laiv  at  Philadelphia.,  on 
Wednefday  the  fifteenth  day  of  March., 
Anno  Domini  one  thoufand  feven  hun- 
dred and  eighty. 

(Signed)         THOMAS    PAINE,  Clerk 
of  the  General  AJfanbly. 

(Copy) 


(     xvil     ) 


^  Latv  to  encreafe  the  annual  Subfcrlptions  of  the  Members 
of  the  American  Phllofophical  Society  held  at  Philadel- 
phia for  promoting  ufeful  knoivledgCt  and  alfo  to  encreafe 
the  Depofites  of  neivly  ele^ed  Members  on  their  adviiffion 
into  the  f aid  Society, 

WHEREAS  the  cuftomary  annual  payment  of  Ten 
Shillings  from  each  Member  of  the  American 
Phllofophical  Society,  and  alfo  the  cuftomary  depofite  of 
Ten  Shillings  by  each  newly  eledted  Member,  on  his  ad- 
million  into  the  fald  Society,  hath  been  found  inadequate 
to  the  neceffary  and  occafional  expenditures  of  the  Society. 

Be  it  therefore  enadted,  and  it  is  hereby  enadted  by  the 
American  Philofophical  Society,  held  at  Philadelphia  for 
promoting  ufeful  knowledge,  by  virtue  of 'the  chartered 
rights  to  the  faid  Society  granted,  and  by  authority  of  the 
fame.  That  for  the  future,  that  is  to  fay,  from  and  after 
the  firft  of  March  next,  the  payments  to  be  made  by  every 
Member  of  the  faid  Society  (hall  be  Four  Dollars  annual- 
ly, and  the  depofite  to  be  made  by  every  ne.vly  eleded 
Member,  from  and  after  the  faid  firft  of  March,  fhall  be 
Ten  Dollars.  And  no  Member  who  {hall  be  in  arrear  for 
his  annual  fubfcription  or  depofite,  ft^all  be  eligible  to  any 
office  in  the  faid  Society,  or  be  permitted  to  vote  at  elec- 
tions, or  at  the  ordinary  meetings  of  the  Society,  until  he 
Ihall  have  fully  paid  up  his  faid  arrears. 

And  be  it  further  cnafled,  That  no  newly  eledled  Mem- 
ber fhall  receive  a  certificate  of  his  election,  or  be  ad.nit- 
ted  as  a  Member  of  the  faid  Society,  until  he  (hall  have 
paid  into  the  treafury  the  faid  depofite  of  Ten  Dollars  and 
alfo  his  arrearages  of  Four  Dollars  per  annum,  if  any  fuch 
ihall  have  accrued  from  the  time  of  his  eledion. 

C  Provided 


.T.m     L.'.W  co^xERNING.  SUBSCRIPTIONS,  &c. 

Provided  always,  That  honorary  Members  in  foreign 
parts,  fliall  not  be  fubjedt  to  this  law,  nor  fhall  their  cer- 
tiiicates  of  clciftion  be  with-hcld  on  account  of  their  not 
paying  the  depofite  or  annual  fubicription  aforefaid.  Ne- 
verthelefs,  if  any  fuch  foreign  Member  fhould  happen  to 
come  to  the  city  of  Philadelphia  with  a  view  of  fettlement 
or  refidence,  then  fuch  Member  fliall  pay  the  depofite 
money  as  before  direfted,  and  fliall  thenceforth  be  liable 
for  the  annual  fubfcription  in  common  with  other  refident 
Members. 

And  be  it  further  enabled.  That  all  former  laws,  ordi- 
nances or  cufloms  inconfiftent  with  or  contradidtory  to  this 
a<3:,  be,  and  the  fame  are  hereby  repealed. 

EnaSied  into  a  laiv  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Philojo- 
phical  Society.)  according  to  Charter.)  this  Jtxth  day  of. 
'January^  Anno  Domini.)  one  thoufandfeven  hundred  and 
eighty-fix. 


Ex' 


(     six     ) 


Ext  ra£ls  from  the  Minutes  of  the  American  Philofoph'ical 
Society,  refpeUing  a  Donation  propofed  by  Mr.  J.  H.  de 
Magellan,  of  London. 

January  1786, 

MR.  J.  H.  de  Magellan  of  London,  having  in  a  let- 
ter, dated  the  1 7th  of  September  laft,  and  com- 
municated to  the  fociety  by  Mr.  Vaughan,  one  of  the 
Vice-Prefidents,  made  an  offer  to  the  fociety  of  tivo  hun- 
dred gumeas,  to  be  vefted  in  a  permanent  fund,  that  the 
intercft  arifing  therefrom  may  be  dlfpofed  of  in  annual  pre- 
miums, to  the  authors  of  the  beft  difcoveries  or  moft  ufe- 
ful  improvements  relating  to  navigation,  or  to  natural 
philofophy,  mere  natural  hiftory  only  excepted:  And  the 
Ibciety  having  moft  thankfully  accepted  the  generous  offer, 
appointed  a  committee  to  frame  rules  and  conditions  for 
the  difpofition  of  the  propofed  premiums,  agreeable  to  the 
intention  of  the  donor,  expreffed  in  his  letter,  but  more 
precife  in  the  terms;  which  being  done,  and  approved  of 
by  the  fociety,  were  immediately  tranfmitted  in  a  letter  to 
Mr.  Ma2:ellan,  for  his  confirmation  or  amendment.  They 
are  as  follow,  viz. 

I.  The  candidate  fhall  fend  his  difcovery,  invention  or 
improvement,  addreffed  to  the  Prefident  or  a  Vice-Prefi- 
dent  of  the  Society,  free  of  portage  or  other  chari!;es  ;  and 
fhall  diftinguifh  his  performance  by  fome  motto,  device  or 
fignature,  at  his  pleafure.  Together  with  his  difcovery, 
invention  or  improvement,  he  fhall  alfo  fend  a  fealed  let- 
ter, containing  the  fame  motto,  device  or  fignature,  and 
fubfcribed  with  the  real  name  and  place  of  refidence  of 
the  author. 

2.  Perfons 


XX     EXTRACTS  from  the  MINUTES  of  thf. 

2.  Perfons  of  any  nation,  feci,  or  denomination  what- 
ever, fhall  be  admitted  as  candidates  for  this  premium. 

3.  No  difcovery,  invention  or  improvement  (hall  be- 
entitled  to  this  premium,  which  hath  been  already  pub-- 
lifhed,  or  for  which  the  author  hath  been  pubHcly  re- 
warded elfewhcre. 

4.  The  candidate  fhall  communicate  his  difcovery,  in- 
vention or  improvement  either  in  the  Englifh,  French, 
German,  or  Latin  language. 

5.  All  fuch  communications  fhall  be  publicly  read  or 
exhibited  to  the  Society,  at  fome  flated  meeting,  not  lef& 
than  one  month  previous  to  the  day  of  adjudication  ;  and 
fhall  at  all  times  be  open  to  the  infpedtion  of  fuch  mem- 
bers as  fhall  defire  it.  But  no  member  fhall  carry  home 
with  him  the  communication,  defcription  or  model,  ex- 
cept the  officer  to  whom  it  fhall  be  entrufted  :  nor  fhall 
fuch  officer  part  with  the  fame  out  of  his  cuftody,  to  any 
but  the  judges,  who  may  demand  it  for  confideration. 

6.  The  twelve  counfellors,  together  with  the  other  of- 
ficers annually  elected  according  to  the  charter  and  laws 
of  the  Society,  fhall  be  judges  of  the  merits  of  the  feveral 
communications,  and  award  the  premium.  Which  adju- 
dication fhall  be  determined  by  a  majority  of  judges  met; 
provided  that  fuch  majority  be  not  lefs  than  {even  con- 
curring votes. 

J.  And  for  this  purpofe  the  counfellors  and  other  offi- 
cers, or  at  leaft  feven  of  them,  fhall  meet  on  the  fecond 
Monday  in  December,  in  every  year,  to  form  their  judg- 
ment and  award  the  premium.  After  due  confideration 
had,  a  vote  fhall  firO:  be  taken  on  this  queftion,  viz.  "  Whe- 
*'  ther  any  of  the  communications  then  under  infpe(flion, 
"  are  worthy  of  the  propofed  premium  ?"  If  this  fliall  be 
determined  in  the  negative,  the  whole  bufinefs  fhall  be 
deferred  till  another  year  :  But  if  in  the  affinuatiire,  the 
judges  lliall  then  proceed  to  determine,  by  vote,  the  dif- 
covery, invention  or  improvement  moft  ufeful  and  worthy. 

And 


PHILOSOPFIICAL    SOCIETY.  xxr 

And  that  difcovery,  invention  or  improvement  which  fliall 
be  found  to  have  the  greateft  number  of  concurring  votes 
(;being  not  lefs  than  feven)  in  its  favour,  fhall  be  fuccefs- 
ful.  Whereupon  a  certificate  in  writing  fliall  be  forthwith 
drawn  of  this  adjudication,  and  figned  by  thoie  who  voted 
for  the  crowned  fubjedt :  And  then,  and  not  till  then,  the 
fealed  letter  accompanying  the  crowned  performance,  fliall 
be  opened  and  the  name  of  the  author  announced  ;  which 
certificate  Audi  be  prefented  to  the  Society  at  their  next 
ftated  meeting,  and  delivered  to  the  Secretary  to  be  enter- 
ed on  record,  in  a  bound  book  provided  for  this  purpofe.. 

8.  A  full  account  of  the  crowned  fubjeft  fliall  be  pub- 
liflied  by  the  Society  as  foon  as  may  be,  after  the  adjudica- 
tion, either  in  a  feparate  publication,  or  in  the  next  fucceed- 
ing  volume  of  their  Tranfadions,  or  in  both. 

9.  The  unfuccefsful  performances  fliall  lie  over  for  con- 
fideration,  and  remain,  as  candidates  for  the  premiuFo^  for 

Jive  fucceeding  years  next  after  their  prefentment  ;  unlefs 
the  author  or  authors  fliall  think  fit  to  withdraw  them  or 
any  of  them  :  And  the  Society  fliall  publifli  annually  an 
abftraft  of  the  titles,  objeit  or  lubjed  matter  of  the  com- 
munications fo  under  confideration,  fiich  only  excepted  as 
the  counfellors  and  other  officers  fliall,  by  vote  as  aforefaid, 
have  determined  not  worthy  of  public  notice. 

10.  No  counfellor  or  officer  who  is  a  candidate  fliall  fit 
in  judgment,  or  give  his  vote. 

1 1.  The  letters  containing  the  names  of  authors  whofe 
performances  fliall  be  rejeded,  or  fliall  be  found  unfuc- 
cefsful  after  a  trial  of  five  years,  fliall  be  burnt  without 
breaking  the  feals. 

I  2.  In  cafe  there  fliould  be  a  failure,  in  any  year,  of 
any  communication  worthy  ot  the  propofed  premium, 
there  will  then  be  two  premiums  awarded  in  the  next 
year.  But  no  accumulation  of  premiums  iliall  entitle  an 
author  to  more  than  one  premium  for  any  one  difcovery, 
invention  or  improvement. 

13.  The- 


xxU      EXTRACTS  from  the  MINUTES,  &c. 

13.  The  premium  fhall  confift  of  an  oval  plate  of  foil d 
flandard  gold,  of  the  value  of  Ten  Guineas.  On  one  fide 
thereof  fhall  be   neatly   engraved  the  following   motto, 

• together  with  thefe  w^ords,  The  donation 

of of  London^  ejlahlijhed  in  the  year  1786.     And  on 

the  other  fide  of  the  plate  fhall  be  engraved  thefe  words, 

Aivarded  by  the  A.  P.  S.  to for  his  difcovery 

of A.  D.  1 7 — .  Prefident. 

And  the  feal  of  the  Society  fhall  be  annexed  to  the  faid 
golden  plate,  by  a  ribbon  palfing  through  a  fmall  hole 
near  the  lower  edge  therco£ 


LIST 


(     xxiii     ) 


LIST  OF  THE  OFFICERS 


OF        THE 


AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETT, 

■Held  at  Philadelphia,  for  promoting  ufeful  Knowledge, 

For  the  Year  1786. 

Patron.     His  Ex"^  the  Prefident  of  the  Supreme  Execu- 
tive Council  of  the  Commonwealth,  for  the  time  being,. 

President.     His   Excellency  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Efquire,  L.  L.  D    F.  R.  S.  &c.  &c. 

f  Rev.  Dr.  John  Ewing,  Provofl:  of 

Vice-Presidents    ]      ^^^  UniVerfity  of  Pennfylvania. 
YlCE-t-RESIDENTS.   j  ^^^   ^^,   William  White. 

[Samuel  Vaughan,   Efq. 

fDr.  James  Hutchinfon. 

Mr.  Robert  Patterfon,  Profeffor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  Univerfity 
of  Pennfylvania. 

Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Magaw,  Vice-Pro- 
voft  of  the  Univerfity  of  Penn- 
fylvania. 

Dr.  John  Foulk. 


Secretaries. 


Curators.. 


Treasurer. 


fDr.  Samuel  Duffield. 

]  Dr.  Barnabas  Binney. 

j  William   Bradford,  Efq.  Attorney 

|_      General  of  Pennfylvania. 

fThe  Honorable  Francis  Hopkin- 
•^       fon,  Efq.  Judge  of  the  Admiralty 
L     in  Pennfylvania, 

Co  UN— 


XXIV 


Counsellors. 


LIST    OF    OFFICERS. 

The  Hon.  Thomas  M'Kean,  Erqulre, 
L.  L.  D.  Chief  Juftice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Pennfylvania. 

The  Hon.  George  Bryan,  Efquire,  a 
Juftice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Pennfylvania. 

Sieur  Barbe  de  Marbois. 

Mr.  Samuel  Caldwell. 

Jared  Ingerfoll,  Efq. 

Jonathan  Bayard  Smith,  Efq. 

Rev.  Mr.  Robert  Blackwell. 

David  Rittenhoufe,  Efq. 

Dr.  Benjamin  Rufh,  ProfefTor  of  Che- 
miftry  in  the  Univerfity  of  Penn- 
fylvania. 

Dr.  John  Jones. 

Dr.  Adam  Kuhn,  Profeflbr  of  Mate- 
ria Medica  in  the  Univerfity  of 
Pennfylvania. 

Rev.  Mr.  George  DufEeld. 


LIST  of  Members  of  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety, elefted  fince  the  Publication  of  the  Firfl  Vohime  of 
Tranfa£lions,  viz.  fince  the  i8th  of  January,    1771. 

T  ^ 

J  OSEPH  Aftolinge,  Efq.  of  Georgia. 

B 
Mr.  Gerard  Banker. 
Dr.  William  Bryant,   of  New- Jerfey.  * 
Mr.  James  Bringhurft. 

Honorable  Thomas  Bee,   Efq.  of  South-Carolina. 
John  Beale  Boardley,   Efq.  of  Maryland. 
Rev.  Jeremy  Belknap,   of  New-Hampfhire. 
Dr.  Barnsbas  Binney. 
Rev.  Mr.  Robert  Blackwell. 

William 


Note,  Thofe  Members  whofe  places  of  rcCdencc  arc  not  fpecifieJ,  arc  of  Phihdclphi.; ; 
and  thofe  marked  with  an  *  are  deceafed. 


LIST    OF    MEMBERS.  xxv 

William  Bradford,  Efq.  Attorney-General  of  Pennfylvania. 

C 
Dr.  John  Carfon. 
Rev.  ManaiTeh  Cutler,  of  Ipfwich,  Maflachuletts. 

D 
Sharp  Delany,   Efq. 
Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Davldfon,   of  Carlifle. 
Mr.  John  Dunlap. 

E 
Dr.  Jonathan  Elmer,   of  New-Jerfey. 
Jofeph  Ellicott,   Efq.  Bucks  county.   * 
Andrew  Ellicott,   Efq.   of  Maryland. 

F 
Mr.  George  Fox. 
Dr.  John  Foulk. 

G 
Mr.  George  Gauld,   of  Penfacola. 
Ifaac  Gray,   Efq. 
George  Gray,   Efq. 
Mr.  Archibald  Gamble,  Profeflbr  of  Englifli  and  Oratory,  Univcr- 

fity,  Philadelphia.  * 
Dr.  Samuel  F^well  Griffitts. 

H 
Dr.  James  Hutchinfon. 

Thomas  Hutchins,  Efq.  Geographer  to  the  United  States. 
Ebenezer  Hazard,  Efq.  Poftmafter-General. 
Samuel  Huntington,   Efq.   of  Connefticut.    * 

Rev.  Dr.  Juft.  Hen.  Chrift.  Helmuth,  Prof,  of  the  Germ,  and  Ori- 
ental Languages,   Univerfity,  Philadelphia. 
Thomas  Hayward,  jun.  Efq.  of  South-Carolina. 

I 
Dr.  Walter  Jones,   of  Virginia. 
Dr.  John  Jones,  of  Maryland. 
Jared  IngerfoU,   Efq. 

His  Excellency  Thomas  Jefferfon,  Efq.  of  Virginia,   Minifter  Pleni- 
potentiary to  the  Court  of  France. 

K 
Rev.  Dr.  John  C.  Kunze,  of  New- York. 

L 
Mr.  Jeffe  Lukens.  * 

Henry  Laurens,  Efq.   of  South-Carolina. 
Rev,  Mr.  William  Ludlam,   of  Leiccfler. 

d  Dr.  James 


^xvi  LIST    OF    MEMBERS, 

Dr.  James  Lloyd,  of  Bofton. 

M 
LIr.  Archibald  l^I'CIean,   of  York  county.   * 
Capt.  John  Matrefon,   of  New -York. 
Timothy  Matlack,   Efq. 
Dr.  George  Millegan,   of  South-Carolina. 
James  M'Clurg,   M.  D.  Williamfburgh,  Virginia. 
Mr.   Benjamin  Morgan. 

Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Magaw,   Vice-Provofl:  of  Univer.  Phila. 
Hon.  Dr.  James  M'Henry,   Efq.  of  Baltimore. 
Rev.  Dr.  James  Madifon,   Prefident  of  the  College  of  WillLam  and 

Mary,   Virginia. 
Rev.  Mr.  Henry  Muhlenberg,   of  Lancafter. 

P 
Dr.  John  Perkins,   of  Bofton,  Maflachufetts. 
Dr.  Thomas  Park. 

Mr.  Robert  Patterfon,   Prof.  Math.  Univer.  Philadelphia. 
Hon.  Mann  Page,   Efq.    of  Frederickfburgh,    Virginia. 
Thomas  Paine,  Efq.  of  Bordentown. 
Charles  Pettit,   Efq. 

R 
Mr.  Bernard  Romans,   of  Penfacola. 

S 
Dr.  Hugh  Shiell.  * 

Jonathan  Bayard  Smith,   Efq.  f 

Jonrahan  Dickinfon  Sergeant,   Efq. 
Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Smith,  Vice-Pi-efident  of  the  College  in  New-Jerfey. 

T 
Dr,  James  Tilton,   of  Dover. 
Mr.  John  Ternant. 

V 
Samuel  Vaughan,   Efq. 
Mr.  John  Vaughan. 

W 
His  Excellency  Ckneral  Wafliington,  Virginia. 
Rev.  Samuel  Williams,  L.  L.  D.  Hoi.  Prof.  Mor.  and  Nat.  Philof. 

College  of  Cambridge,   Maflachufetts. 
Dr.  Nicholas  Way,   of  Wilmington. 
George  Wall,  jun.  Efq.  of  Bucks  county. 

Hon.  Anthony  Wayne,  Efq   Gen.  in  the  Armies  of  the  United  States. 
Mr.  Benjamin  Workman,  Teacher  of  Math.  Univerfity,  Philadelphia. 

FOREIGN 


LIST    OF    MEMBERS.         xxvli 
FOP.  EIGN     MEMBERS. 

A 

Monfieur  le  Marquis  d'Argeville,   of  Paiis. 

Dr.  Adams,   of  Barbadoes. 

Lieut.  Stephen  Adye,   of  the  Royal  Artillery. 

B 
Dr.  Forbcrn  Bergman,   Prof.  Math.  Stockholm. 
Major  Frederick  F.  S.  dc  Brahm,   Triers. 
His  Excellency  M.  J.  Peter  Van  Berckel,   Minifter  Plenipotentiary 

from  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands. 
Frederick    Eugene    Francis   Baron    de    Beelen    Bertholf,    Imperial 
Councellor  of  Commerce  to   the  United  States,    Bruflels. 
C 
Le  Chevalier  de  Chaftellux,  Marflial  of  the  Field  in  the   Armies  of 
France,   Chevalier  of  the  Royal  Military  Order  of  St.  Louis,  and 
one  of  the  forty  members  of  the   French  Academy. 
Count  de  Campomanes,   Fifcal  of  the  Council  of  Cartile. 
Dr.  Adair  Cravirford,  Phyfician  to  St.  Thomas's  Hoi'pital,  London. 
Dr.  Coftc. 

Rev.  Thomas  Coombe,   Ireland. 
Daniel  Coxe,  Efq.   England. 

D 
Mr.  Peter  Dollond,   of  London. 
Dr.  Andrew  Duncan,   of  Edinburgh. 

Monfieur  Daubenton,   of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris. 
Monfieur  Dubourg,   of  Paris.   * 
Chev.  Danmours,  Conful  of  France  for  the  Southern  Department. 

E 
Hon.  John  Ellis,  Efq.  of  Jamaica.  * 
Hon.  Bryan  Edwards,  Efq.  of  Jamaica. 

F 
Le   Marquis  de    la   Fayette,   Major    General   in   the  Armies  of  the 

United  States  of  America. 
Abbe  Fontana,   Diredor  of  the   Great  Duke's  Cabinet  of  Natural 
Hiftory. 

G 
Rev.  Thomas  Gibbons,    D.  D.  of  London. 
Count  de  Guichen,  Lieut.  Gen.  in  the  French  Army. 

H 
Hon.  Samuel  Guftavus  Baron  Hermelin,  of  Stockholm. 

d  3  William 


xxvlii         LIST    OF    MEMBERS. 

William  Herfchel!,  Efq.  F.  R.  S.  of  Bath,  England. 

I 
Dr.  Hugli  James,   of  Jamaica. 

K 
Timothy  Baron  de  Kleingftedt,  Councellor  of  State  to  the  Emprefs 

of  Ruffia. 
Brigadier-General  Thadeus  Kofcuzko. 

L 
Le  Chev.  de  la  Luzerne. 
Monfieur  Lavoifier,   of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris. 

M 
Monfieur  Barbe  de  Marbois,  Intendant  of  St.  Domingo. 
Lord  Mahone. 

Monfieur  INIacquer,   of  Paris.   * 
Samuel  Moore,  Efq.  of  London. 
Dr.  Benjamin  Mofley,   of  Jamaica. 
Mr.  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan,  F.  R.  S.  and  Member  of  feveral. 

Academies,   London. 
Chrift.  Fred.  Michaelis,   M.  D.  of  Gottenburgh. 
Mr.  John  Mandrillon,   Merchant,   Amfterdam. 

P 
Rev.  Jofeph  Prieftley,   L.  L.  D.  F.  R.  S.   of  Birmingham,  England. 
Rev.  Richard  Price,   D.  D.    F.  R.  S.  of  London. 
Dr.  Pvobert  Percival,  Prof.  Chym.  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
Mr.  "William  Parker,   of  London. 

R 
Monfieur  le  Roy,  Vice-Diredtor  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris.. 
Monfieur  le  Roux. 
Abbe  Raynal. 
Abbe  Rofier,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Lyons. 

S 
Monfieur  S'ue,  Profeflbr  Royal  of  Anatomy,   &c.  at  Paris. 
Monfieur  Jean  Baptifte  Siie,  Prof.  Surgery  in  Paris. 
Right  Hon.  Earl  of  Stanhope.  * 
Mr.  Alexander  Small,  of  London. 
Mr.  James  Six,   of  Canterbury.   England. 

V 
Monfieur  le  Count  de  Vergennes,    Minifter  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  France. 

W 
Fortunatus  de  Warris,   Efq. 
William  Wright,  M.  D.  F.R.S.  in  the  Parifliof  Trelawney,  Jamaica. 


(     xxix     ) 


CONTENTS 


O  F 


VOLUME     11. 


N  °  Page. 

I.  jI  LETTE  R  from   Dr.   B.  Franklin,   to  Dr.  Ingenhaufz, 

Phyfician  to  the  Emperor,  at  Vienna,  on  the  Catifes  and 
Cure  of  Smokey  Chimneys,  I 

II.  Explanation  of  an  Optical  Deception,  by  Mr.  Rittenhoufe,  37 

III.  Defcription  of  the  White  Mountains  in  Neiu-HampfJjire,    by 

the  Rev.  Mr.  Jeremy  Belknap,  42 

IV.  Defcription  of  a  remarkable  Rock  and  Cafcade,  near  the 
Wefiern  Side  of  the  Toughiogeny  River,  by  Tho.  Hutchins,  Efq.      50 

V.  Letter  to  Mr.  Nairne,  of  London,  from  Dr.  Franklin,  pro- 
pofuig  a  flo-wly  fenfible  Hygrometer  for  certain  Purpofes,  51 

VI.  Defcription  of  a  new  Stove  for  burning  of  Pit  coal,  and  con- 
fuming  all  it's  Smoke,    by  Dr.  Franklin,  57 

VII.  J  Theory  of  Lightning  and  Thunder  Storms,  by  Andrew- 
Oliver,  Efq.  of  Salem,  in  the  State  of  Maffachufetts,  74 

VIII.  Theory  of  Water-Spouts,   by  Andrew  Oliver,  Efq.  loi 

IX.  Experiments  on  Evaporation,  and  Meteorological  Obferva- 
tions  made  at  Bradjield  in  New-England,  by  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Williams,   A.  M.  I18 

X.  A  Letter  from  J.  Madifon,  Efq.  to  D.  Rittenhoufe,  Efq. 
containing  Meteorological  Obfervations,  .  123" 

XI.  Defcription  of  a  Machine  for  meafuring  a  Ship's  Way  thro' 

the  Sea,  by  F,  Hopkinfon,  Efq,  ijc^ 

XII.  Ac 


XXX  CONTENTS. 

N°  Page. 

XII.  Account  of  an   EleUrical  Eel,  or  the   Torpedo  of  Surinam, 

by  William  Bryant,  Efq.  i(,(^ 

XIII.  Obfervations  on  the  Numb  Fifh,  or  Torporific  Eel,  by  Hen- 
ry Collins  Flagg,   of  South-Carolina,  i  yo 

XIV.  A  Letter  to  David  Rittenhoufe,  Efq.  from  John  Page,  Efq.    173 

From  David  Rittenhoufe,  Efq.  to  John  Page,  Efq.    175 
Concerning  a  remarkable  Meteor  feen  in  Virginia  and  Pennfylvania. 

XV.  Defcription  of  the  Grotto  at  Swatara,  by  the  Rev.  Peter 
Miller,   of  Ephrata  -,    communicated  by  'W\\\\3i'ca.^MX.Qn,  Efq,     177 

XVI.  An  Account  of  fome  Experiments  on  Magnetifm,  in  a. 
Letter  to  John  Page,  Efq.  at  lVilliamfhurg,from  Mr.  Ritten- 
houfe, I  78 

XVII.  Ne-w  Method  of  placing  a  Meridian  Mark,  in  a  Letter 
to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ewing,  Provofi  of  the  Univerfity.  By  D. 
Rittenhoufe,  Efq.  181 

XVIII.  Account  of  a  Worm  in  a  Horfe's  Eye,  by  F.  Hopkin- 
fon,   Efq.  18, 


J 


XIX.  An  improved  Method  of  i^iilling  a  Harpfichord,  by  F. 
Hopkinfon,  Efq.  j  Sr 

XX.  Obfervations   on   a   Comet  lately  difcoveredi    communicated 

by  David  Rittenhoufe,  Efq.  Kjt 

XXI.  ExtraSl  of  a  Letter  from  the  Rev.  Jeremy  Belknap,  co7i~ 
taining  Obfervations  on  the  Aurora  Borealis.  1 96 

XXII.  A  Letter  from  J.  Madifon,  Efq.  to  D.  Rittenhoufe,  Efq. 
containing  Experiments  and  Obfervations  upon  -what  are  com- 
monly called  the  Sweet  Springs.  igy 

XXIII.  A  Letter  from  the  Rev.  Jeremy  Belknap,  on  the  preferv- 

ing  of  Par  flips  by  drying.  ipp 

XXIV.  An  Optical  Problem,  propofed  by  Mr.  Hopkinfon,  and 
folved  by  Mr.  Rittenhoufe,  201 

XXV.  An. 


CONTENTS.  xxxi 

N°  Page. 

XXV.  ydn  Enquiry  into  the  Caiife  of  the  Increafc  of  Bilious  and 
Intermitting  Fevers  in  Pennfylvania,  with  Hints  for  prevent- 
ing them.      By  Benjamin  Rufh,  M.  D.  Profejfor  of  Chemijiry 

in  the  Univerfity  of  Pennfylvania,  1o6 

XXVI.  Jn  Account  of  the  late  Dr.  Hugh  Martin'j  Cancer  Pow- 
der, with  brief  Olfcrvations  on  Cancers.      By  Benjamin  Rufli, 

J\L  D.   6c.  6c.  212 

XXVII._  Maycri  Obfervationes  Aflronomica,  217 

XXVIII.  Ohfervations  on  the  Caiife  and  Cure  of  the  Tetanus,  by 
Benjamin  Rufh,  M.  D.  6c.  6c.  22J 

XXIX.  Letter  concerning  Chimneys,  addrejfed  to  His  Excellency 
Benjamin  Franklin,  Efq.  L.  L.  D.  Preftdent  of  the  State  of 
Pennfylvania,   and  of  the  American  Philofophieal  Society,  6c. 

by  Dr.  Rufton,  231- 

XXX.  Ohfervations  on  the  annual  Paffage  of  Herrings,  by  Mr. 
John  Gilpin,  23(j 

XXXI.  Ohfervations  on  a  Solar  and  Lunar  Ecllffe,  communicat- 
ed to  the  Society  by  M.    M.  de  Grauchain,    Major-Ceneral  of 

the  French  Squadron,  239; 

XXXII.  An  Account  of  the  Tranfit  of  Venus  over  the  Sun,  June 
i']6g,  as  obferved  at  Newbury,  in  Maffachujetts  ;  by  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Williams,   A.  AI.  246 

XXXIII.  yin  eafy  and  accurate  Method  of  finding  a  true  Meri- 
dian Line,  and  thence  the  Variation  of  the  Compafs.  By  Ro- 
bert Patterfon,  25 1 

XXXIV.  Aftronomical  Ohfervations,  communicated  by  Mr.  R.it- 
tenhoufe,  260 

XXXV.  A  Letter  from  Mr.  Otto  to  Dr.  Franklin,  with  a  Me- 
moir on  the  Difcovery  of  America,  263 

XXXVI.  The  antifeptic  Virtues  of  Vegetable  Acid  and  Marine 
Salt  combined,  in  various  Diforders  accompanied  with  Putri- 
dity ;   communicated  in   a  Letter   to  John   Morgan,    M.  D. 

F.  R.  S. 


xxxii  CONTENTS. 

N  °  Page. 

F.  R.  S.  and  Profejfor  cf  the  Theory  and  PraBice  of  Phyfic  at 
Philadelphia,  by  William  Wright,  M.  D.  of  Trelawney  in 
Jamaica,  284 

XXXVII.  Medical  Hiflory  of  the  Cortex  Ruber,  or  Red  Bark  ,- 
communicated  to  John  Morgan,  /If.  D.  Profeffor  of  the  Theory 
and  PraBice  of  Phyfic  at  Philadelphia,  and  F.  R.  S.  London,  isc.    289 

XXXVIII.  A  Letter  from  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  to  Mr.  AI- 
phonfus  le  Roy,  Member  of  fever al  Academies  at  Paris,  con- 
taining fundry  Maritime  Obfervations,  ■  294 

XXXIX.  Account  of  two  Hearts  found  in  one  Partridge,  33 

XL.  ConjeRures  concerning  Wind  and  Water  Spouts,  Tornados 
and  Hurricanes.  Communicated  by  Dr.  Joha  Perkins,  of 
Beflon,   to  John  Morgan,  M.  D.   isc.  ijc.  335 

XLI.  The  -whole  Proccfs  of  the  Silk  Worm,  Jrom  the  Egg  to  the 
Cocon  1  communicated  to  Dr.  John  Morgan,  ifc.  at  Philadel- 
phia, in  tiuo  Letters  from  Meffrs  Hare  and  Skinner,  ire.  in 
London,    July  27,   1774,   and  February  24,   lyjSt  347 

XLII.  The  Art  of  making  Anatomical  Preparations  by  Corrofion. 
By  John  Morgan,  M.  D.  <bc.  be.  366 

XLIII.  Of  a  living  Snake  in  a  living  Horfe's  Eye,  and  of  other 
unufual  ProduBions  of  Animals.  By  John  Morgan,  AI.  D. 
F.  R.  S.  London,  6c.  383 

XLIV.  Some  Account  of  a  motley  coloured,  or  pyed  Negro  Girl 
and  Mulatto  Boy,  exhibited  before  the  Society  in  the  Month  of 
May,  1784,  for  their  Examination,  by  Dr.  John  Morgan, 
from  the  Hiflory  given  of  them  by  their  owner  Monf.  le  Val- 
lois,  Dentift  of  the  King  of  France,  at  Guadaloupe  in  the 
Wejl- Indies,  392 

XLV.  ExtraSl  of  a  Letter  from  Bernard  Romans,  of  Penfacola, 
dated  Auguft  20,    I773>  on  an  improved  Sea-Compafs,  396 


TRANS- 


TRANSACTIONS 

O     F       T     H     E 

American  Philosophical   Society,  &c. 


N°  I. 

A  Letter  from  Dr.  B.  Franklin  to  Dr.  Ingenhausz, 
Phyfician  to  the  Emperor^   at  Vienna. 


Dear  Friend, 

id  2ift 
oa.-i78i 


At  fea,  Auguft  aStli,  1785. 
Readjift  T^N  one  of  your  letters,  a  little  before  I  left 
France,  you  defire  me  to  give  you  in  writing 
-**"  my  thoughts  upon  the  conftrudion  and  ufe  of 
chimneys,  a  fubjedl  you  had  fometimes  heard  me  touch 
upon  in  converfation.  I  embrace  willingly  this  leifurc 
afforded  by  my  prefent  fituation  to  comply  with  your  re- 
quefl,  as  it  will  not  only  fhow  my  regard  to  the  defires  of 
a  friend,  but  may  at  the  fame  time  be  of  fome  utility  to 
others;  the  doiftrine  of  chimneys  appearing  not  to  be  as 
yet  generally  well  underftood,  and  miftakes  refpeding 
them  being  attended  with  conflant  inconvenience,  if  not 
remedied ;  and  with  fruitlefs  cxpence,  if  the  true  remedies 
are  miflaken. 

Thofe  who  would  be  acquainted  with  this  fubjed:  fhould 
begin  by  confidering  on  what  principle  fmoke  afcends  in 
any  chimney.     At  firft  many  are  apt  to  think  that  fmoke 

is 


2  LETTER      CONCERNING 

is  in  its  nature  and  of  itfelf  fpecifically  lighter  than  air» 
and  rifes  in  it  for  the  fame  reafon  that  cork  rifes  in  water. 
Thefe  fee  no  caufe  why  fmoke  fhould  not  rife  in  the  chim- 
ney, though  the  room  be  ever  fo  clofe.  Others  think 
there  is  a  power  in  chimneys  to  draiv  up  the  fmoke,  and 
that  there  are  different  forms  of  chimneys  which  af- 
ford more  or  lefs  of  this  power.  Thefe  amufe  themfelves 
•with  fearching  for  the  bell  form.  The  equal  dimenfions 
of  a  funnel  in  its  whole  length  is  not  thought  artificial 
enough,  and  it  is  made,  for  fancied  reafons,  fometimes  ta- 
pering and  narrowing  from  below  upwards,  and  fome- 
times the  contrary,  &c.  &c.  A  fimple  experiment  or  two 
may  ferve  to  j2ive  more  corredt  ideas.  Having  lit  a  pipe 
of  tobacco,  plunge  the  ftem  to  the  bottom  of  a  decanter 
half  filled  with  cold  water;  then  putting  a  rag  over  the 
bowl,  blow  through  it  and  make  the  fmoke  defcend  in  the 
ftem  of  the  pipe,  from  the  end  of  which  it  will  rife  in 
bubbles  through  the  water ;  and  being  thus  cooled,  will 
not  afterwards  rife  to  go  out  through  the  neck  of  the  de- 
canter, but  remain  fpreading  itfelf  and  reftlng  on  the  fur- 
face  of  the  water.  This  ihows  that  fmoke  is  really  hea- 
vier than  air,  and  that  it  is  carried  upwards  only  when  at- 
tached to,  or  aded  upon,  by  air  that  is  heated,  and  there- 
by rarefied  and  rendered  fpecifically  lighter  than  the  air  ia 
its  neighbourhood. 

Smoke  being  rarely  feen  but  in  company  with  heated 
air,  and  its  upv/ard  motion  being  vifible,  though  that  of  the 
rarefied  air  that  drives  it  is  not  fo,  has  naturally  given  rife 
to  the  error. 

I  need  not  explain  to  you,  my  learned  friend,  what  is 
meant  by  rarefied  air;  but  if  you  make  the  public  uie  you 
propofe  of  ihis  letter,  it  may  fall  into  the  hands  of  fome 
who  are  unacquainted  with  the  term  and  with  the  thing. 
Thefe  then  may  be  told,  that  air  is  a  fluid  which  has 
weight  as  well  as  others,  though  about  eight  hundred  times 
lighter  than  water.     That  heat  makes  the  particles  of  air 

recede 


CHIMNEYS.  3 

recede  from  each  other  and  take  up  more  fpace,  fo  that 
the  fame  weight  of  air  heated  will  have  more  bulk,  than 
equal  weights  of  cold  air  which  may  furround  it,  and 
in  that  cafe  muft  rife,  being  forced  upwards  by  fuch  cold- 
er and  heavier  air,  which  prelTes  to  get  under  it  and  take  its 
place.  That  air  is  fo  rarefied  or  expanded  by  heat,  may  be 
proved  to  their  comprehenfion  by  a  lank  blown  bladder, 
which  laid  before  a  lire  will  foon  fwell,  prow  ti$rht  and 
burft. 

Another  experiment  may  be  to  take  a  glafs  tube  about 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  twelve  inches  long,  open  at  both 
ends  and  fixed  upright  on  legs  fo  that  it  need  not  be  han- 
dled, for  the  hands  might  warm  it.     At  the  end  of  a  quill 
fallen  five  or  fix  inches  of  the  fineft  light  filament  of  filk, 
fo  that  it  may  be  held  either  above  the  upper  end  of  the 
tube  or  under  the  lower  end,  your  warm  hand  being  at  a 
diftance  by  the  length  of  the  quill.     If  there  were 
Fi^ure''r.    ^"7  motiou  of  air  through  the  tube,  it  would  ma- 
nifeft  itfelf  by  hs  efFeft  on  the  filk ;  but  if  the  tube 
and  the  air  in  it  are  of  the  fame  temperature  with  the  fur- 
rounding  air,  there  will  be  no  fuch  motion,  whatever  may 
be  the  form  of  the  tube,  whether  crooked  or  ftrait,  narrow 
below  and  widening  upwards,  or  the  contrary  ;  the  air  in  it 
will  be  quiefcent.     Warm  the  tube,  and  you  will  find  as 
long  as  it  continues  warm,  a  conftant  current  of  air  enter- 
ing below  and  paffing  up  through  it,  till  difcharged  at  the 
top;  becaufe  the  warmth  of  the  tube  being  communicated 
to  the  air  it  contains,  rarefies  that  air  and  makes  it  lighter 
than  the  air  without,  which  therefore  prefles  in  below, 
forces  it  upwards,  follows  and  takes  its  place,  and  is  rare- 
fied in  its  turn.      And,  without  warming  the  tube,  if  you 
hold  under  it  a  knob  of  hot  iron,  the  air  thereby  heated  will 
rife  and  fill  the  tube,  going  out  at  its  top,  and  this  motion  in 
the  tube  will  conLinuc  as  long  as  the  knob  remains  hor, 
becauie  the  air  entering  the  tube  below  is  heated  and  ra- 
refied by  paffing  near  and  over  that  knob.  That 


4  LETTER     CONCERNING 

That  this  motion  is  produced  merely  by  the  difference  o^ 
fpccific  gravity  between  the  fluid  within  and  that  without 
the  tube,  and  not  by  any  fancied  form  of  the  tube  itfelf, 
may  appear  by  plunging  it  into  water  contained  in  a  glafs 
jar  a  foot  deep,  through  which  fuch  motion  might  be 
feen.  The  water  within  and  without  the  tube  being  ot 
the  fame  fpeciHc  gravity,  balance  each  other,  and  both  re- 
main at  reit.  But  take  out  the  tube,  ftop  its  bottom  with 
a  finger  and  fill  it  with  olive  oil,  which  is  lighter  than 
water,  then  flopping  the  top,  place  it  as  before,  its  lower 
end  under  water,  its  top  a  very  little  above.  As  long  as 
you  keep  the  bottom  ftopt,  the  fluids  remain  at  reft,  but 
the  moment  it  is  unftopt,  the  heavier  enters  below,  forces 
up  the  lighter,  and  takes  its  place.  And  the  motion  then 
ceafes,  merely  becaufe  the  new  fluid  cannot  be  fucceffively 
made  lighter,  as  air  may  be  by  a  warm  tul^e.- 

In  fadl:,  no  form  of  the  funnel  of  a  chimney  has  any 
fhare  in  its  operation  or  cffeO:  refpetfling  fmoke,  except  its 
height.  The  longer  the  funnel,  if  eredl,  the  greater  its 
force  when  filled  with  heated  and  rarefied  air,  to  draiv  in 
below  and  drive  up  the  fmoke,  if  one  may,  in  compliance 
with  cuftom,  ufe  the  exprefllon  draiu,  when  in  fadl  it  is 
the  fuperior  weight  of  the  furrounding  atmofphere  that 
prej/es  to  enter  the  funnel  below,  and  fo  dj-ives  up  before 
it  the  fmoke  and  warm  air  it  meets  with  in  its  paflage. 

I  have  been  the  more  particular  in  explaining  thefe  firfl: 
principles,  becaufe,  for  want  of  clear  ideas  refpeding  them, 
much  fruitlefs  expence  has  been  occafioned ;  not  only 
fmgle  chimneys,  but  in  fome  inflances,  within  my  know- 
ledge, whole  flacks  having  been  pulled  down  and  rebuilt 
with  funnels  of  diff^erent  forms,  imagined  more  powerful 
in  draivi7ig  fmoke;  but  having  flill  the  fame  height  and 
the  fame  opening  below,  have  performed  no  better  than 
their  predecelTors. 

What  is  it  then  which  makes  zfmoky  chimney-,  that  is, 
a  chimney  which  infliead  of  conveying  up  all  the  fmoke, 

difcharges. 


CHIMNEYS.  5 

difcliarges  a  part  of  it  into  the  room,  offending  the  eyes 
"and  damaging  the  furniture  ? 

The  caufes  of  this  effefl:,  which  have  fallen  under  my 
obfervation,  amount  to  nine,  diifering  from  each  other, 
and  therefore  requiring  different  remedies. 

I.  Smokj  chimneys  in  a  iieiv  houfe,  are  fuch,  frequently 
from  mtre  tvant  of  air.  The  workmanfhip  of  the  rooms 
being  all  good,  and  juft  out  of  the  workm.an's  hand,  the 
joints  of  the  boards  of  the  flooring,  and  of  the  pannels  of 
wainfcotting  are  all  true  and  tight,  the  more  fo  as  the 
walls,  perhaps  not  yet  thoroughly  dry,  preferve  a  damp- 
nels  in  the  air  of  the  room  which  keeps  the  wood-work 
fwelled  and  clofe.  The  doors  and  the  fafhes  too,  being 
worked  with  truth,  fhut  with  exaclnefs,  fo  that  the  room 
is  as  tight  as  a  fnuff-box,  no  paffage  being  left  open  for 
air  to  enter,  except  the  key-hole,  and  even  that  is  fome- 
times  covered  by  a  little  dropping  fhutter.  Now  if  fmoke 
cannot  rife  but  as  connefted  with  rarefied  air,  and  a  column 
of  fuch  air,  fuppofe  it  filling  the  funnel,  cannot  rife,  unlefs 
other  air  be  admitted  to  fupply  its  place  ;  and  if,  therefore, 
no  current  of  air  enter  the  opening  of  the  chimney,  there 
is  nothing  to  prevent  the  fmoke  coming  out  into  the  room. 
If  the  motion  upwards  of  the  air  in  a  chimney  that  is 
freely  fupplied,  be  obferved  by  the  rifing  of  the  fmoke  or 
a  feather  in  it,  and  it  be  confidered  that  in  the  time  fuch 
feather  takes  in  rifing  from  the  fire  to  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  a  column  of  air  equal  to  the  content  of  the  fun- 
nel muft  be  difcharged,  and  an  equal  quantity  fupplied 
from  the  room  below,  it  will  appear  abfolutely  impoffible 
^  that  this  operation  lliould  go  on  if  the  tight  room  is  kept 
*  fliut ;  for  were  there  any  force  capable  of  drawing  con- 
ftantly  fo  much  air  out  of  it,  it  muft  foon  be  exhauiled 
like  the  receiver  ot  an  air  pump,  and  no  animal  could  live 
in  it.  Thofe  therefore  who  flop  every  crevice  in  a  room 
to  prevent  the  admiffion  of  frelh  air,  and  yet  would  have 
their  chimney  carry  up  the  imoke,  require  inccnfiftencies, 

and 


6  LETTER    concerning 

end  exped  impofiibllities.  Yet  under  this  fituatlon,  I 
have  feen  the  owner  of  a  new  hoiife,  in  defpair,  and  ready- 
to  fell  it  for  much  lefs  than  it  coft,  conceiving  it  unin- 
habitable, becaufe  not  a  chimney  in  any  one  of  its  rooms 
would  carry  off  the  fmoke,  unlefs  a  door  or  window  w^ere 
left  open.  Much  expence  has  alfo  been  made,  to  alter 
and  amend  new  chimneys  which  had  really  no  fault ;  in 
one  houfe  particularly  that  I  knew,  of  a  nobleman  in 
Weftminfter,  that  expence  amounted  to  no  Icfs  than  three 
hundred  pounds,  after  his  houfe  had  been,  as  he  thought, 
finifhed  and  all  charges  paid.  And  after  all,  feveral  of  the 
alterations  were  ineffectual,  for  want  of  underftanding  the 
true  principles. 

Remedies.  When  you  find  on  trial,  that  opening  the 
door  or  a  window,  enables  the  chimney  to  carry  up  all 
the  fmoke,  you  may  be  fure  that  want  of  a\v  froin  ivith^ 
out-,  was  the  caufe  of  its  fmoking.  I  fay  from  iv'ithoiitt 
to  guard  you  againff  a  common  miflake  of  thofe  who  may 
tell  you,  the  room  is  large,  contains  abundance  of  air, 
fufficient  to  fupply  any  chimney,  and  therefore  it  cannot 
be  that  the  chimney  wants  air.  Thefe  reafoners  are  igno- 
rant, that  the  largenefs  of  a  room,  if  tight,  is  in  this  cafe 
of  fmall  importance,  fmce  it  cannot  part  with  a  chimney 
full  of  its  air  without  occafioning  fo  much  vacuum  ;  which 
it  requires  a  great  force  to  effeifl,  and  could  not  be  borne 
if  effeded. 

It  appearing  plainly,  then,  that  fome  of  the  outward 
air  muft  be  admitted,  the  queftion  will  be,  how  much  is 
ahfolutely  necefdry  ;  for  you  would  avoid  admitting  more, 
as  bein-';  contrary  to  one  of  your  intentions  in  having  a 
fire,  viz.  that  of  warming  your  room.  To  difcover  this 
quantity,  fliut  the  door  gradually  while  a  middling  fire  is 
burning,  till  you  find  that,  before  it  is  quite  flint,  the  fmoke 
begins  to  come  out  into  the  room,  then  open  it  a  little  till 
you  perceive  the  fmoke  comes  out  no  longer.  There  hold 
the  door,  and  obferve  the  width  of  the  open  crevice  be- 
tween 


CHIMNEYS.  7 

tween  the  edge  of  the  door  and  the  rabbit  It  fhould  {hut 
into.  Suppole  the  diftance  to  be  half  an  inch,  and  the 
door  eight  feet  high,  you  find  thence  that  your  room  re- 
quires an  entrance  for  air  equal  in  area  to  ninety  fix  half 
Inches,  or  forty  eight  fquare  inches,  or  a  paffage  of  fix 
inches  by  eight.  This  however  is  a  large  fuppofition, 
there  being  few  chimneys,  that,  having  a  moderate  open- 
ing and  a  tolerable  height  of  funnel,  will  not  be  fatisfied. 
■with  fuch  a  crevice  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  ;  and  I  have 
found  a  fquare  of  fix  by  fix,  or  thirty  fix  fquare  inches, 
to  be  a  pretty  good  medium,  that  will  ferve  for  moft 
chimneys.  High  funnels  with  fmall  and  low  openings^ 
may  indeed  be  fupplied  through  a  lefs  fpace,  becaufe,  for 
reafons  that  will  appear  hereafter,  the  force  of  levity-,  if 
one  may  fo  fpeak,  being  greater  in  fuch  funnels,  the  cool 
air  enters  the  room  with  greater  velocity,  and  confequent- 
ly  more  enters  in  the  fame  time.  This  however  has  its 
limits,  for  experience  fhows  that  no  increafed  velocity  fa 
occafioned,  has  made  the  admifhon  of  air  through  the 
key-hole  equal  in  quantity  to  that  through  an  open  door; 
though  through  the  door  the  current  moves  flowly,  and 
through  the  key-hole  with  great  rapidity. 

It  remains  then  to  be  confidered  how  and  where  this 
neceifary  quantity  of  air  from  without  is  to  be  admitted  fo 
as  to  be  leaft  inconvenient.  For,  if  at  the  door,  left  fo 
much  open,  the  air  thence  proceeds  diredly  to  the  chimney, 
and  in  its  way  comes  cold  to  your  back  and  heels  as  you 
fit  before  your  fire.  If  you  keep  the  door  fhut,  and  raife 
a  little  the  laih  of  your  window,  you  feel  the  fame  incon- 
venience. Various  have  been  the  contrivances  to  avoid 
this,  fuch  as  bringing  in  frefh  air  through  pipes  in  the 
jams  of  the  chimney,  which  pointing  upwards  Ihould  blow 
the  fmoke  up  the  funnel  ;  opening  pail'ages  into  the  fun- 
nel above,  to  let  in  air  for  the  fame  purpofe.  But  thefe 
produce  an  effcd;  contrary  to  that  intended  :  For  as  it  is 
the  conftant  current  of  air  paffing  from,  the  room  through 

tha 


8  LETTER   concerning 

the  opening  of  the  chimney  into  the  funnel  which  prevents 
the  fmoke  coming  out  into  the  room,  if  you  fupply  the 
funnel  hy  other  means  or  in  other  ways  with  the  air  it 
wants,  and  efpecially  if  that  air  be  cold,  you  diminifh  the 
force  of  that  current,  and  the  fmoke  in  its  efforts  to  enter 
the  room  finds  lefs  refiftance. 

The  wanted  air  lYiuft  then  indifpenfably  be  admitted  into 
the  room,  to  fupply  what  goes  off  through  the  opening 
of  the  chimney.  M,  Ganger,  a  very  ingenious  and  in- 
telligent French  writer  on  the  fubjed:,  propofes  with 
judgment  to  admit  it  above  the  opening  of  the  chimney  ; 
and  to  prevent  inconvenience  from  its  coldnefs,  he  direfts 
its  being  made  to  pafs  in  its  entrance  through  winding 
cavities  made  behind  the  iron  back  and  fides  of  the  fire- 
place, and  under  the  iron  hearth-plate ;  in  which  cavities 
it  wmU  be  warmed,  and  even  heated,  fo  as  to  contribute 
much,  inftead  of  cooling,  to  the  warming  of  the  room. 
This  invention  is  excellent  in  itfelf,  and  may  be  ufed  with 
advantage  in  building  new  houfes  ;  becaufe  the  chimneys 
may  then  be  fo  difpofed,  as  to  admit  conveniently  the  cold 
air  to  enter  fuch  paffages  :  But  in  houfes  built  without 
fuch  views,  the  chimneys  are  often  fo  fituated,  as  not  to 
afford  that  convenience,  without  great  and  expenfive  al- 
terations. Eafy  and  cheap  methods,  though  not  quite  fo 
perfedt  in  themfelves,  are  of  more  general  utility ;  and 
fuch  are  the  following. 

In  all  rooms  where  there  is  a  fire,  the  body  of  air  warm- 
ed and  rarefied  before  the  chimney  is  continually  changing 
place,  and  making  room  for  other  air  that  is  to  be  warm- 
ed in  its  turn.  Part  of  it  enters  and  goes  up  the  chimney, 
and  the  reft  rifes  and  takes  place  near  the  ceiling.  If  the 
room  be  lofty,  that  warm  air  remains  above  our  heads  as 
long  as  it  continues  warm,  and  we  are  little  benefited  by 
it,  becaufe  it  does  not  defcend  till  it  is  cooler.  Few  can 
imagine  the  difference  of  climate  between  the  upper  and 
lower  parts  of  fuch  a  room,  who  have  not  tried  it  by  the 

thermometer, 


CHIMNEYS.  9 

thermometer,  or  by  going  up  a  ladder  till  their  heads  are 
near  the  ceiling.  It  is  then  among  this  warm  air  that  the 
wanted  quantity  of  outward  air  is  beft  admitted,  with 
which  being  mixed,  its  coldnefs  is  abated,  and  its  incon- 
venience diminifhed  fo  as  to  become  fcarce  obfervable. 
This  may  be  eafily  done,  by  drawing  down  about  an  inch 
the  upper  lafh  of  a  window  ;  or,  if  not  moveable,  by  cut- 
ting fuch  a  crevice  through  its  frame  ;  in  both  which  cafes, 
it  will  be  w-ell  to  place  a  thin  fhelf  of  the  length,  to  con- 
ceal the  opening,  and  floping  upwards  to  direct  the  enter- 
ing air  horizontally  along  and  under  the  ceiling.  In  fome 
houfes  the  air  may  be  admitted  by  fuch  a  crevice  made  in 
the  wainfcot,  cornifli  or  plaftering,  near  the  ceiling  and 
over  the  opening  of  the  chimney.  This,  if  praflicablc, 
is  to  be  chofen,  becaufe  the  entering  cold  air  wnll  there 
meet  with  the  warmeft  rifing  air  from  before  the  fire,  and 
be  fooneft  tempered  by  the  mixture.  The  fame  kind  of 
Ihelf  fhould  alfo  be  placed  here.  Another  way,  and  not 
a  very  difficult  one,  is  to  take  out  an  upper  pane  of  glafs 
in  one  of  your  fafhes,  fet  it  in  a  tin  frame,  giving 
it  two  fpringing  angular  fides,  and  then  replacing  p^l%^\ 
it,  with  hinges  below  on  which  it  may  be  turned 
to  open  more  or  lefs  above.  It  will  then  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  internal  flcy  light.  By  drawing  this  pane 
in,  more  or  lefs,  you  may  admit  what  air  you  find  necef- 
fary.  Its  pofition  will  naturally  throw  that  air  up  and 
along  the  ceiling.  This  is  what  is  called  in  France  a  IVas 
iji  das  ?  As  this  is  a  German  queftion,  the  invention  is 
probably  of  that  nation,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  fre- 
quent afking  of  that  queftion  when  it  firft  appeared.  In 
England,  fome  have  of  late  years  cut  a  round  hole  about 
five  inches  diameter  in  a  pane  of  the  falh  and  placed  againft: 
it  a  circular  plate  of  tin  hung  on  an  axis,  and  cut  into 
vanes,  which  being  feparately  bent  a  little  obliquely,  arc 
a£led  upon  by  the  entering  air,  fo  as  to  force  the  plate  con- 
tinually round  like  the  vanes  of  a  windmill.     This  ad- 

B  mits 


lO  LETTER    CONCERNING 

xnits  the  outward  air,  and  by  the  continual  whirling  of 
the  vanes,  does  in  fome  degree  difperfe  it.  The  noife 
only,  is  a  little  inconvenient. 

2.  A  fecond  caufe  of  the  finoking  of  chimneys  is,  their 
openings  in  the  room  being  too  large ;  that  is,  too  wide,  too 
high  or  both.  Architedls  in  general  have  no  other  ideas 
of  proportion  in  the  opening  of  a  chimney,  than  what 
relate  to  fymmetry  and  beauty,  refpedting  the  dimenfions 
of  the  room* ;  while  its  true  proportion,  refpe(5ling  its 
funftion  and  utility  depends  on  quite  other  principles ; 
and  they  might  as  properly  proportion  the  ftep  in  a  ftair- 
cafe  to  the  height  of  the  ftory,  inflead  of  the  natural  ele- 
vation of  men's  legs  in  mounting.  The  proportion  then 
to  be  regarded,  is  what  relates  to  the  height  of  the  funnel. 
For  as  the  funnels  in  the  different  ftories  of  a  houfe  are 
neceffarily  of  different  heights  or  lengths,  that  from  the 
loweft  floor  being  the  higheft  or  longeft,  and  thofe  of  the 
other  floors  fhorter  and  fhorter,  till  we  come  to  thofe  in 
the  garrets,  which  are  of  courfe  the  fliorteft ;  and  the  force 
of  draft  being,  as  already  faid,  in  proportion  to  the  height 
of  funnel  filled  with  rarefied  air;  and  a  current  of  air  from 
the  room  into  the  chimney,  fufficient  to  fill  the  opening, 
being  neceffary  to  oppofe  and  prevent  the  fmoke  coming 
out  into  the  room ;  it  follows  that  the  openings  of  the 
longeft  funnels  may  be  larger,  and  that  thofe  of  the  fhorter 
funnels  fhould  be  fmaller.  For  if  there  be  a  large  open- 
ing to  a  chimney  that  does  not  draw  ftrongly,  the  funnel 
may  happen  to  be  furnlfhed  with  the  air  it  demands  by  a 
partial  current  entering  on  one  Cde  of  the  opening,  and 
leaving  the  other  fide  free  of  any  oppofing  current,  may 
permit  the  fmoke  to  iffue  there  into  the  room.  Much  too 
of  the  force  of  draft  in  a  funnel  depends  on  the  degree  of 
rarefaftion  in  the  air  it  contains,  and  that  depends  on  the 
nearnefs  to  the  fire  of  its  pafTage  in  entering  the  funnel. 
If  it  can  enter  far  from  the  fire  on  each  fide,  or  far  above 
the  fire,  in  a  wide  or  high  opening,  it  receives  little  heat 

ia 

*  See  Appendix,  K  °  I. 


CHIMNEYS.  ti 

in  pafling  by  the  fire,  and  the  contents  of  the  funnel  is  by 
that  means  lefs  different  in  levity  from  the  furrounding 
atmofphere,  and  its  force  in  drawing  confequently  weaker. 
Hence  it  too  large  an  opening  be  given  to  chimneys  in 
upper  rooms,  thofe  rooms  will  be  fmoky  :  On  the  other 
hand,  if  too  fmall  openings  be  given  to  chimneys  in  the 
lower  rooms,  the  entering  air  operating  too  diredlly  and 
violently  on  the  fire,  and  afterwards  ftrengthening  the 
draft  as  it  afcends  the  funnel,  will  confume  the  fuel  too 
rapidly. 

Remedy.  As  different  clrcumftances  frequently  mix 
themfelves  in  thefe  matters,  it  is  difficult  to  give  precifc 
dimenfions  foi  the  openings  of  all  chimneys.  Our  fathers 
made  them  generally  much  too  large ;  we  have  leffened 
them;  but  they  are  often  ftlU  of  greater  dimenfion  than 
they  fhould  be,  the  human  eye  not  being  eafily  reconciled 
to  fudden  and  great  changes.  If  you  fufpedl  that  your 
chimney  fmokes  from  the  too  great  dimenfion  of  its  open- 
ing, contrail  it  by  placing  moveable  boards  fo  as  to  lower 
and  narrow  it  gradually,  till  you  find  the  fmoke  no  longer 
iffues  into  the  room.  The  proportion  fo  found  will  be  that 
which  is  proper  for  that  chimney,  and  you  may  employ  the 
bricklayer  or  mafon  to  reduce  it  accordingly.  However, 
as,  in  building  new  houfes,  fomething  mufl:  be  fometimes 
hazarded,  I  would  make  the  openings  in  my  lower  rooms 
about  thirty  inches  fquare  and  eighteen  deep,  and  thofe 
in  the  upper,  only  eighteen  inches  fquare  and  not  quite  fo 
deep ;  the  intermediate  ones  dimlnilhing  in  proportion  as 
the  height  of  funnel  diminhhed.  In  the  larger  openings, 
billets  of  two  feet  long,  or  half  the  common  length  of  cord- 
wood,  may  be  burnt  conveniently ;  and  for  the  fmaller, 
fuch  wood  may  be  fawed  into  thirds.  Where  coals  are  the 
fuel,  the  grates  will  be  proportioned  to  the  openings. 
The  fame  depth  is  nearly  neceffary  to  all,  the  funnels  be- 
ing all  made  of  a  fize  proper  to  admit  a  chimney-fweeper. 
If  in  large  and  elegant  rooms  cuftom  or  fancy  fhould  re- 

B  s  quire 


12  LETTER      CONCERNING 

quire  the  appearance  of  a  larger  chimney,  it  may  be  form- 
ed of  expenfive  marginal  decorations,  in  marble,  &c.  la 
time  perhaps  that  which  is  fitteft  in  the  nature  of  things, 
may  come  to  be  thought  handfomeft.  But  at  prefent  when 
men  and  women  in  different  countries  fhow  themfelves 
diffatisfied  with  the  forms  God  has  given  to  their  heads, 
waifts  and  feet,  and  pretend  to  fliape  them  more  perfect- 
ly, it  is  hardly  to  be  expeded  that  they  will  be  content 
always  with  the  beft  form  of  a  chimney.  And  there  are 
fome  I  know  fo  bigotted  to  the  fancy  of  a  large  noble 
opening,  that  rather  than  change  it,  they  would  fubmit 
to  have  damaged  furniture,  fore  eyes  and  fkins  almofl 
fraoked  to  bacon. 

3.  Another  caufe  of  fmoky  chimneys  is,  too /hort  afiin-' 
nel.  This  happens  neceflarily  in  fome  cafes,  as  where 
a  chimney  is  required  in  a  low  building ;  for,  if  the  fun- 
nel be  raifed  high  above  the  roof,  in  order  to  ftrengthen 
its  draft,  it  is  then  in  danger  of  being  blown  down,  and 
crulhing  the  roof  in  its  fall. 

Remedies.  Contrad:  the  opening  of  the  chimney,  fo  as 
to  oblige  all  the  entering  air  to  pafs  through  or  very  near 
the  fire;  whereby  it  will  be  more  heated  and  rarefied,  the 
funnel  Itfelf  be  more  warmed,  and  its  contents  have  more 
of  what  may  be  called  the  force  of  levity,  fo  as  to  rife 
ftrongly  and  maintain  a  good  draft  at  the  opening. 

Or  you  may  in  fome  cafes,  to  advantage,  build  additi- 
onal flories  over  the  low  building,  which  will  fupport  a 
high  funnel. 

If  the  low  building  be  ufed  as  a  kitchen,  and  a  contrac- 
tion of  the  opening  therefore  inconvenient,  a  large  one  be- 
ing neceffary,  at  leaft  when  there  are  great  dinners,  for  the 
free  management  of  fo  many  cooking  utenfils  ;*in  fuch 
cafe  I  would  advife  the  building  of  two  more  funnels  join- 
ing to  the  htfl,  and  having  three  moderate  openings,  one 
to  each  funnel,  inftead  of  one  large  one.  When  there  is 
occafion  to  ufe  but  one,  the  other  two  may  be  kept  Ihut 

by 


CHIMNEYS. 


'3 


by  flidlng  plates,  hereafter  to  be  defcribed*;  and  two  or  all 
of  them  may  be  ufed  together  when  wanted.  This  will 
indeed  be  an  expence,  but  not  an  ufelefs  one,  fince  your 
cooks  will  work  with  more  comfort,  fee  better  than  in  a 
fmoky  kitchen  what  they  are  about,  your  victuals  will  be 
cleaner  drefled  and  not  tafte  of  fmoke,  as  is  often  the  cafe ; 
and  to  render  the  effeft  more  certain,  a  ftack  of  three  fun- 
nels may  be  fafely  built  higher  above  the  roof  than  a  lin- 
gle  funnel. 

The  cafe  of  too  fliort  a  funnel  is  more  general  than 
would  be  imagined,  and  often  found  where  one  would  not 
expedt  It.  For  it  is  not  uncommon,  in  ill-contrived  build- 
ings, inftead  of  having  a  funnel  for  each  room  or  hreplace, 
to  bend  and  turn  the  funnel  of  an  upper  room  fo  as  to 
make  it  enter  the  fide  of  another  funnel  that  comes  from 
below.  By  this  means  the  upper  room  funnel  is  made 
fhort  of  courfe,  fmce  its  length  can  only  be  reckoned  from 
the  place  where  it  enters  the  lower  room  funnel;  and  that 
funnel  is  alfo  Ihortencd  by  all  the  diftancc  between  the  en- 
trance of  the  fecond  funnel  and  the  top  of  the  ftack:  For 
all  that  part  being  readily  fupplied  with  air  through  the 
fecond  funnel,  adds  no  ftrength  to  the  draft,  efpecially  as 
that  air  is  cold  when  there  is  no  fire  in  the  fecond  chim- 
ney. The  only  eafy  remedy  here  is,  to  keep  the  open- 
ing fhut  of  that  funnel  in  which  there  is  no  fire. 

4.  Another  very  common  caufe  of  the  fmoking  of 
chimneys;  is,  their  Gverpozvering  one  another.  F"or  in- 
ftance,  it  there  be  two  chimneys  in  one  large  room,  and  you 
make  fires  in  both  of  them,  the  doors  and  windows  clofe 
fhut,  you  will  find  that  the  greater  and  ftronger  fire  fhall 
overpower  the  weaker,  and  draw  air  down  its  funnel  to 
lupply  its  own  demand;  which  air  defcending  in  the 
weaker  funnel  will  drive  down  its  fmoke,  and  force  it  into 
the  room.  It,  inftead  of  being  in  one  room,  the  two  chim- 
neys are  in  two  dift"erent  rooms,  communicating  by  a  door, 
the  cafe  is  the  fame  whenever  that  door  is  open.     In  a  very 

ti^ht 

'  See  Appendix,  N  o   II. 


14  LETTER   concerning 

tight  houfe,  I  have  known  a  kitchen  chimney  on  the  low- 
eft  floor,  when  it  had  a  great  fire  in  it,  overpower  any 
other  chimney  in  the  houfe,  and  draw  air  and  Imoke  into 
its  room,  as  often  as  the  door  was  opened  communicating 
•with  the  ftaircafe. 

Remedy.  Take  care  that  every  room  have  the  means 
of  fupplying  itfelf  from  without,  with  the  air  its  chimney 
may  require,  lb  that  no  one  of  them  may  be  obliged  to 
borrow  from  another,  nor  under  the  neceflity  of  lending. 
A  variety  of  thefe  means  have  been  already  defcribed. 

5.  Another  caufeof  fmoking  is,  ivhen  the  tops  of  chm- 
neys  are  commanded  by  higher  buildings,  or  by  a  hill-,  fo  that 
the  wind  blowing  over  fuch  eminences  falls  like  water  over 
a  dam,  fometimes  almoft  perpendicularly  on  the  tops  of 
the  chimneys  that  lie  in  its  way,  and  beats  down  the  fmoke 
contained  in  them. 

Remedy.  That  commonly  applied  to  this  cafe,  Is  a 
turncap  made  of  tin  or  plate  iron,  covering  the  chimney 
above  and  on  three  fides,  open  on  one  fide,  turning  on  a 
fpindle,  and  which  being  guided  or  governed  by  a  vane, 
always  prefents  its  back  to  the  current.  This  I  believe  may 
be  generally  efFe£tual,  though  not  certain,  as  there  may  be 
cafes  in  which  it  will  not  fucceed.  Railing  your  funnels 
if  pradlicable,  fo  as  their  tops  may  be  higher,  or  at  leaft 
equal  with  the  commanding  eminence,  is  more  to  be  de- 
pended on.  But  the  turning  cap,  being  eafier  and  cheaper, 
ihould  firft  be  tried.  If  obliged  to  build  In  fuch  a  fituatlon, 
I  would  chufe  to  place  my  doors  on  the  fide  next  the  hill, 
and  the  backs  of  my  chimneys  on  the  furtheft  fide;  for 
then  the  column  of  air  falling  over  the  eminence,  and  of 
courfe  prefling  on  that  below  and  forcing  It  to  enter  the 
doors,  or  M^as-ijl-dases  on  that  fide,  would  tend  to  balance 
the  prefTure  down  the  chimneys,  and  leave  the  funnels 
more  free  In  the  exercife  of  their  fundtions. 

6.  There  Is  another  cafe  of  command,  the  reverfe  of 
that  laft  mentioned.     It  Is  where  the  commanding  emi- 
nence 


CHIMNEYS.  15, 

nence  is  farther  from  the  wind  than  the  chimney  com- 
manded.    To   explain   this   a   figure  may  be   neceffary, 
Suppofe  then  a  building  whofe  fide  A,  happens  to  be  expof- 
ed  to  the  wind,  and  forms  a  kind  of  dam  againft  its 
proerefs.     The  air  obftrudted  by  this  dam  will  like   l^!'^"  '• 
water  prefs  and  fearch  for  paflages  through  it ;  and 
finding  the  top  of  the  chimney  B,  below  the  top  of  the 
dam,  it  will  force  itfelf  down  that  funnel,  in  order  to  get 
through  by  fome  door  or  window  open  on  the  other  fide 
of  the  building.     And  if  there  be  a  fire  in  fuch  chimney, 
its  fmoke  is  of  courfe  beat  down,  and  fills  the  room. 

Remedy.  I  know  of  but  one,  which  is  to  raife  fuch 
funnel  higher  than  the  roof,  fiapporting  it,  ifneceffary,  by 
iron  bars.  For  a  turn-cap  in  this  cafe  has  no  effeft,  the 
dammed  up  air  preffmg  down  through  it  in  whatever  po- 
fition  the  wind  may  have  placed  its  opening. 

I  know  a  city  in  which  many  houfes  are  rendered  fmoky 
by  this  operation.  For  their  kitchens  being  built  behind, 
and  connected  by  a  paflage  with  the  houfes,  and  the  tops 
of  the  kitchen  chimneys  lower  than  the  top  of  the  houfes, 
the  whole  fide  of  a  llreet  when  the  wind  blows  againft  its 
back,  forms  fuch  a  dam  as  above  defcribed ;  and  the  wind 
fo  obftruded  forces  down  thofe  kitchen  chimneys,  (efpe- 
cially  when  they  have  but  weak  fires  in  them)  to  pafs 
through  the  pafl'age  and  houfe,  into  the  ftreet.  Kitchen 
chimneys  fo  formed  and  fituated,  have  another  inconve- 
nience. In  fummer,  if  you  open  your  upper  room  wind- 
dows  for  air,  a  light  breeze  blowing  over  your  kitchen 
chimney  towards  the  houfe,  though  not  ftrong  enough  to 
force  down  its  fmoke  as  aforefaid,  is  fufficient  to  waft  it 
into  your  windows,  and  fill  the  rooms  with  it;  which,  be- 
tides the  difagreeablenefs,  damages  your  furniture. 

7.  Chimneys,  otherwife  drawing  well,  are  fometimes 
made  to  fmoke  by  the  improper  and  incowvenient fituat'wn 
of  a  door.  When  the  door  and  chimney  are  on  the  fame 
fide  of  the  room  as  in  the  figure,  if  the  door  A,  being  in 

the- 


/, 


i6  LETTER    concerning 

the  corner  Is  made  to  open  againft  the  wall,  which 
pi;uc  I.      jg  common,  as  bcino:  there,  when  open,  more  out 

of  the  way,  it  follows,  that  when  the  door  is  on- 
ly opened  in  part,  a  current  of  air  rufhing  in  paffes  along 
the  wall  into  and  acrofs  the  opening  of  the  chimney  B, 
and  flirts  fome  of  the  fmoke  out  into  the  room.  This 
happens  more  certainly  when  the  door  is  fhutting,  for  then 
the  force  of  the  current  is  augmented,  and  becomes  very 
inconvenient  to  thofe  who,  warming  themfelves  by  the 
fire,  happen  to  fit  in  its  way. 

The  Remedies  are  obvious  and  eafy.  Either  put  an  in- 
tervening flcreen  from  the  wall  round  great  part  of  the  fire- 
place ;  or,  which  is  perhaps  preferable,  fliift  the  hinges  of 
your  door,  fo  as  it  may  open  the  other  way,  and  when 
open  throw  the  air  along  the  other  wall. 

8.  A  room  that  has  no  fire  in  its  chimney,  is  fome- 
times  filled  with  fmoke  ivhich  zs  I'ecei'ued  at  the  top  of 
its  ftimiel  and  defcends  into  the  room.  In  a  former 
paper*  I  have  already  explained  the  defcending  currents 
of  air  in  cold  funnels;  it  may  not  be  amifs  however 
to  repeat  here,  that  funnels  without  fires  have  an  effedt 
according  to  their  degree  of  coldnefs  or  warmth,  on  the 
air  that  happens  to  be  contained  in  them.  The  furround- 
ing  atmofphere  is  frequently  changing  its  temperature  ; 
but  flacks  of  funnels  covered  from  winds  and  fun  by  the 
houfe  that  contains  them,  retain  a  more  equal  temperature. 
If,  after  a  warm  feafon,  the  outward  air  fuddenly  grows 
cold,  the  empty  warm  funnels  begin  to  draw  ftrongly  up- 
ward ;  that  is,  they  rarefy  the  air  contained  in  them,  which 
of  courfe  rifes,  cooler  air  enters  below  to  fupply  its  place, 
is  rarefied  in  its  turn  and  rifes ;  and  this  operation  conti- 
nues, till  the  funnel  grows  cooler,  or  the  outward  air 
warmer,  or  both,  when  the  motion  ceafes.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  after  a  cold  feafon,  the  outward  air  fuddenly  grows 
warm  and  of  courfe  lighter,  the  air  contained  in  the  cool 
funnels,  being  heavier,  defcends  into  the  room ;  and  the 

warmer 

«   Sec  AiJpendix,  N°    11. 


CHIMNEYS.  17 

warmer  air  which  enters  their  tops  hc'inq  cooled  in  its 
turn,  and  made  heavier,  continues  to  defeend  ;  aid  this 
operation  goes  on,  till  the  funnels  are  warmed  hy  the  paf- 
fing  of  warm  air  through  them,  or  the  air  iticlf  grows 
cooler.  When  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  of  the  fun- 
nels is  nearly  equal,  the  difference  of  warmth  in  the  air 
between  day  and  night  is  fufHcient  to  produce  thefe  cur- 
rents, the  air  will  begin  to  afcend  the  funnels  as  the  cool 
of  the  evening  comes  on,  and  this  current  will  continue 
till  perhaps  nine  or  ten  o'clock  the  next  morning,  when 
it  begins  to  hefitate  ;  and  as  the  heat  of  the  day  approach- 
es, it  fets  downwards,  and  continues  fo  till  towards  even- 
ing, when  it  again  hefitates  for  fome  time,  and  then  goes 
upwards  conftantly  during  the  night,  as  before  mentioned. 
Now  when  fmoke  iffuing  froni  the  tops  of  neighbouring 
funnels  paffes  over  the  tops  of  funnels  which  are  at  the 
time  drawing  downwards,  as  they  often  are  in  the  middle 
part  of  the  day,  fuch  fmoke  is  of  neceffity  drawn  into  thefe 
funnels,  and  defcends  with  the  air  into  the  chamber. 

The  Remedy  is  to  have  a  Aiding  plate,  hereafter  de- 
fcribed*,  that  will  fhut  perfedlly  the  offending  funnel. 

9.  Chimneys  which  generally  draw  well,  do  neverthe- 
lefs  fometimes  give  fmoke  into  the  rooms,  it  being  driveit 
doijon  by  Jirong  ivinds  pajjtng  over  the  tops  of  their  funnels^ 
though  not  defcending  from  any  commanding  eminence. 
This  cafe  is  moft  frequent  where  the  funnel  is  fhort,  and 
the  opening  turned  from  the  wind.  It  is  the  more  griev- 
ous, when  it  happens  to  be  a  cold  wind  that  produces  the 
effect,  becaufe  when  you  moft  want  your  fire,  you  are 
fometimes  obliged  to  extinguifh  it.  To  underftand  this, 
it  may  be  confidered  that  the  rifmg  light  air,  to  obtain 
a  free  Iflue  from  the  funnel,  muft  pufh  out  of  its  way  or 
oblige  the  air  that  is  over  it  to  rife.  In  a  time  of  calm  or 
of  little  wind  this  is  done  vifibly,  for  we  fee  the  fmoke 
that  is  brought  up  by  that  air  rife  in  a  column  above  the 
chimney.     But  when  a  violent  current  of  air,  that  is,  a 

C  fir  on  g 

'■  Sec  Appendii:,  N°    11. 


i8  LETTER   concerning 

ftrong  wind,  pafTes  over  the  top  of  a  chimney,  its  particles 
have  received  fo  much  force,  which  keeps  them  in  a  hori- 
zontal diredion  and  follow  each  other  fo  rapidly,  that  the 
rifing  light  air  has  not  ftrength  fufficient  to  oblige  them 
to  quit  that  direction  and  move  upwards  to  permit  its  ilTue. 
Add  to  this,  that  fome  of  the  current  paffmg  over  that  fide 

of  the  funnel  which  it  firft  meets  with,  viz.  at  A, 
Fi'^urJv    having  been   comprefled  by  the  refiftance  of  the 

funnel,  may  expand  itfclf  over  the  flue,  and  ftrike 
the  interior  oppofite  fide  at  B,  from  whence  it  may  be  re- 
fledled  downwards  and  from  fide  to  fide  in  the  diredlion  of 
the  pricked  lines  c  c  c. 

Remedies.    In  fome  places,  partic-ularly  in  Venice,  where 
they  have  not  flacks  of  chimneys  but  fingle  flues,  the  cuf- 

tom  is,  to  open  or  widen  the  top  of  the  flue  round- 
f' we'"6    ^"S  iri  the  true  form  of  a  funnel ;  which  fome  think 

may  prevent  the  effe£l  jufl;  mentioned,  for  that  the 
wind  blowing  over  one  of  the  edges  into  the  funnel  may 
be  flanted  out  again  on  the  other  fide  by  its  form.  I  have 
had  no  experience  of  this ;  but  I  have  lived  in  a  windy 
country,  where  the  contrary  is  pradifed,  the  tops  of  the 
flues  being  narroived  inwards,  fo  as  to  form  a  flit  for  the 
iflue  of  the  fmoke,  long  as  the  breadth  of  the  funnel,  and 
only  four  inches  w^ide.  This  feems  to  have  been  contrived 
on  a  fuppofition  that  the  entry  of  the  wind  would  thereby 
be  obftruded,  and  perhaps  it  might  have  been  imagined, 
that  the  whole  force  of  the  rifing  warm  air  being  con- 
denfed,  as  it  were,  in  the  narrow  opening,  would  thereby 
be  ftrengthened,  fo  as  to  overcome  the  refiftance  of  the 
wind.  This  however  did  not  always  fucceed  ;  for  when 
the  wind  was  at  north-eaft  and  blew  frefli,  the  fmoke  was 
forced  down  by  fits  into  the  room  I  commonly  fat  in,  fo  as 
to  oblige  me  to  fliift  the  fire  into  another.  The  pofition 
of  the  flit  of  this  funnel  was  indeed  north-eaft  and  fouth- 
weft.  Perhaps  if  it  had  lain  acrofs  the  wind,  the  eff"ed: 
might  have  been  different.  But  on  this  I  can  give  no  cer- 
tainty. 


CHIMNEYS.  T9 

tainty.  It  feems  a  matter  proper  to  be  referred  to  experi- 
ment. Poflibly  a  turn-cap  might  have  been  ferviocable, 
but  it  was  not  tried. 

Chimneys  have  not  been  long  in  ufe  in  England.  I  for- 
merly faw  a  book  printed  in  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth, 
•which  remarked  the  then  modern  improvements  of  living, 
and  mentioned  among  others  the  convenience  of  chimneys. 
"  Our  forefathers,"  faid  the  author,  "  had  no  chimneys. 
"  There  was  in  each  dwelling  houfe  only  one  place  for  a 
"  fire,  and  the  fmoke  went  out  through  a  hole  in  the 
*'  roof;  but  now  there  is  fcarce  a  gentleman's  houfe  in 
"  England  that  has  not  at  leaft  one  chimney  in  it." — 
When  there  was  but  one  chimney,  its  top  might  then  be 
opened  as  a  funnel,  and  perhaps,  borrowing  the  form  from 
the  Venetians,  it  was  then  the  flue  of  a  chimney  got  that 
name.  Such  is  now  the  growth  of  luxury,  that  in  both 
England  and  France  we  muft  have  a  chimney  for  every 
room,  and  in  fome  houfes  every  pofleflbr  of  a  chamber, 
and  almoft  every  fervant,  will  have  a  fire  ;  fo  that  the  flues 
being  neceflarily  built  in  flacks,  the  opening  of  each  as  a 
funnel  is  impracticable.  This  change  of  manners  foon 
confumed  the  firewood  of  England,  and  will  foon  render 
fuel  extremely  fcarce  and  dear  in  France,  if  the  ufe  of 
coals  be  not  introduced  in  the  latter,  kingdom  as  it  has  been 
in  the  former,  where  it  at  firft  met  with  oppofition ;  for 
there  is  extant  in  the  records  of  one  of  queen  Elizabeth's 
parliaments,  a  motion  made  by  a  member,  reciting,  "  that 
"  many  dyers,  brewers,  fmiths,  and  other  artificers  of  Lon- 
"  don,  had  of  late  taken  to  the  ufe  of  pitcoal  for  their  fires, 
"  inftead  of  wood,  which  filled  the  air  with  noxious  va- 
*'  pours  and  fmoke,  very  prejudicial  to  the  health,  parti- 
*'  cularly  of  perfons  coming  out  of  the  country  ;  and  there- 
"  fore  moving  that  a  law  might  pafs  to  prohibit  the  ufe 
*'  of  fuch  fuel  (at  leaft  during  the  feflion  of  parliament) 
"  by  thofe  artificers." — It  feems  it  was  not  then  common- 
ly ufcd  in  private  houfes.     Its  fuppofed  uuMdioIefomenefs 

C  2  was 


20  ^     LETTER      CONCERNING 

was  an  objeilion.  Luckily  the  inhabitants  of  London 
have  got  over  that  objeftion,  and  now  think  it  rather  con- 
tributes to  render  their  air  falubrious,  as  they  have  had  no 
general  peflilential  diforder  fince  the  general  ule  of  coals, 
when,  before  it,  fuch  were  frequent.  Paris  ftill  burns  wood 
at  an  enormous  expence  continually  augmenting,  the  in- 
habitants having  ftill  that  prejudice  to  overcome.  In  Ger- 
many you  are  happy  in  the  ufe  of  ftoves,  which  fave  fuel 
wonderfully  :  Your  people  are  very  ingenious  in  the  ma- 
nagement of  fire ;  but  they  may  ftill  learn  fomething  in 
that  art  from  the  Chinefe*,  whofe  country  being  greatly- 
populous  and  fully  cultivated,  has  little  room  left  for  the 
growth  of  wood,  and  having  not  much  other  fuel  that  is 
good,  have  been  forced  upon  many  inventions  during  a 
courfe  of  ages,  for  making  a  little  fire  go  as  far  as  poffible. 
I  have  thus  gone  through  all  the  common  caufes  of  the 
fmoking  of  chimneys  that  I  can  at  prefent  recolledt  as  hav- 
ing fallen  under  my  obfervation  ;  communicating  the  re- 
medies that  I  have  known  fuccefsfully  ufed  for  the  differ- 
ent cafes,  together  with  the  principles  on  which  both  the 
difeafe  and  the  remedy  depend,  and  confeffing  my  igno- 
rance wherever  I  have  been  fenfible  of  it.  You  will  do 
•well,  if  you  publifti,  as  you  propofe,  this  letter,  to  add  in 
notes,  or  as  you  pkafe,  fuch  obfervations  as  may  have  oc- 
curred to  your  attentive  mind  ;  and  if  other  philofophers 
will  do  the  fame,  this  part  of  fclence,  though  humble,  yet 
of  great  utility,  may  in  time  be  perfedled.  For  many  years 
paft,  I  have  rarely  met  with  a  cafe  of  a  fmoky  chimney, 
which  has  not  been  folvable  on  thefe  principles,  and  cured 
by  thefe  remedies,  where  people  have  been  willing  to  ap- 
ply them  ;  which  is  indeed  not  always  the  cafe  ;  for  many 
have  prejudices  in  favour  of  the  noftrums  of  pretending 
chimney-dodtors  and  fumifts,  and  fome  have  conceits  and' 
fancies  of  their  own,  which  they  rather  chufe  to  try,  than 
to  lengthen  a  funnel,  alter  the  fize  of  an  openinp;,  or  ad- 
mit air  into  a  room,  however  neceffary  j  for  fome  are  as 

much 

*  Sec  Appendix,  N°    III. 


CHIMNEY  S.  21 

much  afraid  of  frefh  air  as  perfons  in  the  hydrophobia  are 
of  frefh  water.  I  myfelf  had  formerly  this  prejudice,  this 
aerophobia^  as  I  now  account  it,  and  dreading  the  fuppofed 
dangerous  efFefts  of  cool  air,  I  confidcrcd  it  as  an  enemy, 
and  doled  with  extreme  care  every  crevice  in  the  rooms  I 
inhabited.  Experience  has  convinced  me  of  my  error.  I 
now  look  upon  frefh  air  as  a  friend  :  I  even  fleep  with  an 
open  window.  I  am  perfuaded  that  no  common  air  from 
•without,  is  fo  unwholefome  as  the  air  within  a  clofe  room 
that  has  been  often  breathed  and  not  changed.  Moid  air 
too,  which  formerly  I  thought  pernicious,  gives  me  now 
no  apprehenfions  :  For  coniidering  that  no  dampnefs  of 
air  applied  to  the  outfide  of  my  ikin,  can  be  equal  to  what 
is  applied  to  and  touches  it  within,  my  whole  body  being 
full  of  moiflure,  and  finding  that  I  can  lie  two  hours  in 
a  bath  twice  a  week,  covered  with  water,  which  certainly 
is  much  damper  than  any  air  can  be,  and  this  for  years 
together,  without  catching  cold,  or  being  in  any  other  man- 
ner difordered  by  it,  I  no  longer  dread  mere  moifture,  either 
in  air  or  in  fheets  or  fliirts:  And  I  find  it  of  importance  to 
the  happinefs  of  life,  the  being  freed  from  vain  terrors, 
efpecially  of  objedls  that  we  are  every  day  expofed  in- 
evitably to  meet  with.  You  phyficians  have  of  late  hap- 
pily difcovered,  after  a  contrary  opinion  had  prevailed 
fome  ages,  that  frefh  and  cool  air  does  good  to  perfons  in 
the  fmall  pox  and  other  fevers.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in 
another  century  or  two  we  may  all  find  out,  that  it  is  not 
bad  even  for  people  in  health.  And  as  to  moifi:  air,  here 
I  am  at  this  prefent  writing  in  a  fhip  with  above  forty 
perfons,  who  have  had  no  other  but  moifl:  air  to  breathe 
for  fix  weeks  pafl ;  every  thing"  we  touch  is  damp,  and 
nothing  dries,  yet  we  are  all  as  healthy  as  we  fliould  be 
on  the  mountains  of  Switzerland,  whofe  inhabitants  are 
not  more  fo  than  thofe  of  Bermuda  or  St.  Helena,  ifiands 
on  whofe  rocks  the  waves  are  dafhed  into  millions  of  par- 
ticles, which  fill  the  air  with  damp,  but  produce  no  dif- 

eales 


22  LETTER    CONCERNING 

eafes,  the  moifture  being  pure,  unmixed  with  the  poifon- 
ous  vapours  arifing  from  putrid  marfhes  and  ftagnant 
pools,  in  which  many  infedls  die  and  corrupt  the  water. 
Thefe  places  only,  in  my  opinion,  (which  however  I  fub- 
mit  to  yours)  afFord  unwholefome  air ;  and  that  it  is  not 
the  mere  water  contained  in  damp  air,  but  the  volatile 
particles  of  corrupted  animal  matter  mixed  with  that  wa- 
ter, which  renders  fuch  air  pernicious  to  thofe  who  breathe 
it.  And  I  imagine  it  a  caufe  of  the  fame  kind  that  ren- 
ders the  air  in  clofe  rooms,  where  the  perfpirable  matter 
is  breathed  over  and  over  again  by  a  number  of  affembled 
people,  fo  hurtful  to  health.  After  being  in  fuch  a  fitua- 
tion,  many  find  themfelves  afFe(3:ed  by  that  febricida., 
which  the  Englifli  alone  call  a  cold^  and,  perhaps  from  the 
name,  imagine  that  they  caught  the  malady  by  going  out 
of  the  room,  when  it  was  in  fadl  by  being  in  it. 

You  begin  to  think  that  I  wander  from  my  fubjed,  and 
go  out  of  my  depth.      So  I  return  again  to  my  chimnevs. 

We  have  of  late  many  lecturers  in  experimental  philo- 
fophy.  I  have  wiilied  that  fome  of  them  would  ftudy  this 
branch  of  that  fcience,  and  give  experiments  in  it  as  a  part 
of  their  letlures.  The  addition  to  their  prefent  apparatus 
need  not  be  very  expeniive."  A  number  of  little  reprefen- 
tations  of  rooms  compofed  each  of  five  panes  of  fafh  glafs, 
framed  in  wood  at  the  corners,  with  proportionable  doors, 
and  moveable  glafs  chimneys,  with  openings  of  different 
fizes,  and  different  lengths  of  funnel,  and  fome  of  the 
rooms  fo  contrived  as  to  communicate  on  occafion  with 
others,  fo  as  to  form  different  combinations,  and  exem- 
plify different  cafes  ;  with  quantities  of  green  wax  taper 
cut  into  pieces  of  an  inch  and  ha  f,  fixteen  of  which  fluck 
together  in  a  fquare,  and  lit,  would  make  a  ftrong  fire  for 
a  little  glafs  chimney,  and  blown  out  would  continue  to 
burn  and  give  fmoke  as  long  as  defired.  With  fuch  an 
apparatus  all  the  operations  of  fmoke  and  rarefied  air  in 
rooms  and  chimneys  might  be  feen  through  their  tranfpa- 

rent 


CHIMNEYS.  23 

rent  fides;  and  the  effcd  of  winds  on  chimneys,  com- 
manded or  otherwife,  might  be  fhown  by  Icttina;  the  ca- 
tering air  blow  upon  them  through  an  opened  window  of 
the  lecturer's  chamber,  where  it  would  be  conftant  while 
he  kept  a  good  fire  in  his  chimney.  By  the  help  of  fuch 
Icdures  our  fumifts  would  become  better  inftruded.  At 
prefent  they  have  generally  but  one  remedy,  which  per- 
haps they  have  known  effectual  in  Ibme  one  cafe  of  fmoky 
chimneys,  and  they  apply  that  indifcriminately  to  all  the 
other  cafes,  without  fuccefs, — but  not  without  expence  to 
their  employers. 

With  all  the  fcience,  however,  that  a  man  fliall  fuppofe 
himfelf  poiTefled  of  in  this  article,  he  may  fometimes  meet 
with  cafes  that  Ihall  puzzle  him.  I  once  lodged  in  a  houfe 
at  London,  which,  in  a  little  room,  had  a  fingle  chimney 
and  funnel.  The  opening  was  very  fmall,  yet  it  did  not 
keep  in  the  fmoke,  and  all  attempts  to  have  a  fire  in  this 
room  were  fruitlefs.  I  could  not  imagine  the  reafon,  till 
at  length  obferving  that  the  chamber  over  it,  which  had 
no  fire-place  in  it,  was  always  filled  with  fmoke  when  a 
fire  was  kindled  below,  and  that  the  fmoke  came  through 
;the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  wainfcot ;  I  had  the  wainfcot 
taken  down,  and  difcovered  that  the  funnel  which  went  up 
behind  it,  had  a  crack  many  feet  in  length,  and  wide 
enough  to  admit  my  arm,  a  breach  very  dangerous  with 
regard  to  fire,  and  occafioned  probably  by  an  apparent  ir- 
regular fettling  of  one  fide  of  the  houfc.  The  air  enter- 
ing this  breach  freely,  dertroyed  the  drawing  force  of  the 
funnel.  The  remedy  v/ould  have  been,  filling  up  the 
breach  or  rather  rebuilding  the  funne! :  But  the  landlord 
rather  chofe  to  flop  up  the  chimney. 

Another  puzzling  cafe  I  met  with  at  a  friend's  country 
houfe  near  London.  His  befl:  room  had  a  chimney  in 
•which,  he  told  me,  he  never  could  have  a  fire,  for  all  the 
fmoke  came  out  into  the  room.  I  flattered  mvfelf  I  could, 
eafily  find  the  caufe,  and  prefcribe  the  cure.     I  had  a  fire 

made.^ 


24  LETTER    concerning 

made  there,  and  found  it  as  he  faid.  I  opened  the  door, 
and  perceived  it  was  not  want  of  air.  I  made  a  temporary 
contradlion  of  the  opening  of  the  chimney,  and  found  that 
it  was  not  its  being  too  large  that  caufed  the  fmoke  to  iifue. 
I  went  out  and  looked  up  at  the  top  of  the  chimney  :  Its 
funnel  was  joined  in  the  fame  ftack  with  others,  fome  of 
them  fhorter,  that  drew  very  well,  and  I  faw  nothing  to 
prevent  its  doing  the  fame.  In  fine,  after  every  other  ex- 
amination I  could  think  of,  I  was  obliged  to  own  the  in- 
fufficiency  of  my  fkill.  But  my  friend,  who  made  no 
pretenfion  to  fuch  kind  of  knowledge,  afterwards  difco- 
vered  the  caufe  himfelf.  He  got  to  the  top  of  the  funnel 
by  a  ladder,  and  looking  down,  found  it  filled  with  twiggs 
and  ftraw  cemented  by  earth,  and  lined  with  feathers. 
It  feems  the  houfe,  after  being  built,  had  flood  empty  fome 
years  before  he  occupied  it  ;  and  he  concluded  that  fome 
large  birds  had  taken  the  advantage  of  its  retired  fituation 
to  make  their  neft  there.  The  rubbifli,  confiderable  in 
quantity,  being  removed,  and  the  funnel  cleared,  the 
chimney  drew  well,   and  gave  fatisfaftion. 

In  general,  fmoke  is  a  very  tradable  thing,  eafily  go- 
verned and  directed  when  one  knows  the  principles,  and 
is  well  informed  of  the  circumftances.  You  know  I  made 
it  defcend  in  my  Pennfylvania  ftove.  I  formerly  had  a 
more  fvmple  conftrudlion,  in  which  the  fame  effe£t  was 

produced,  but  vifible  to  the  eye.  It  was  compof- 
piatc  I.      pj  Qf  j^^,Q  plates  A  B  and  C  D,  placed  as  in  the 

figure.  The  lower  plate  A  B  refted  with  its  edge 
in  the  angle  made  by  the  hearth  v.'ith  the  back  of  the 
chimney.  The  upper  plate  was  fixed  to  the  breaft,  and 
lapt  over  the  lower  about  fix  Inches,  leaving  a  fpace  of 
four  inches  wide  and  the  length  of  the  plates  (near  two 
feet)  between  them.  Every  other  pafTage  of  air  into  the 
funnel  was  well  flopped.  When  therefore  a  fire  was  made 
at  E,  for  the  firft  time  with  charcoal,  till  the  air  in  the 
lunnel  was  a  little  heated  through  the  plates,  and  then 

wood 


CHIMNEYS.  25 

wood  laid  on,  the  fmoke  would  rife  to  A,  turn  over  the 
edge  of  that  plate,  defcend  to  D,  then  turn  under  the  edge 
of  the  upper  plate,  and  go  up  the  chimney.     It  was  pretty 
to  fee,  but  of  no  great  ufe.     Placing  therefore  the  under 
plate  in  a  higher  fituation,  1  removed  the  upper 
plate  C  D,  and  placed  it  perpendicularly,  fo  that   pji^^A 
the  upper  edge  of  the  lower  plate  A  B  came  with- 
in about  three  inches  of  it,  and  might  be  pufhed  farther 
from  it,  or  fufFercd  to  come  nearer  to  it  by  a  moveable 
wedge  between   them.     The  Hame  then  afccnding  from 
the  fire  at  E,  was  carried  to  ftrike  the  upper  plate,  made 
it  very  hot,  and  its  heat  rofe  and  fpread  with  the  rarefied 
air  into  the  room. 

I  believe  you  have  feen  in  ufe  with  me,  the  contrivance 
of  a  fliding-plate  over  the  fire,  feemingly  placed  to  oppofe 
the  rifing  of  the  fmoke,  leaving  but  a  finall  paffage  for  it, 
between  the  edge  of  the  plate  and  the  back  of  the  chimney. 
It  is  particularly  defcribed,  and  its  ufes  explained,  in  my 
former  printed  letter,  and  I  mention  it  here  only  as  ano- 
ther inftance  of  the  tra£tability  of  fmoke*. 

What  is  called  the  Staffordihire  chimney,  affords  an  ex- 
ample of  the  fame.  kind.  The  opening  of  the  chimney  is 
bricked  up,  even  with  the  fore-edge  of  its  jams,  leaving 
open  only  a  paffage  over  the  grate  of  the  fame  width,  and 
perhaps  eight  inches  high.  The  grate  confifts  of  femicir- 
cular  bars,  their  upper  bar  of  the  greatefi:  diameter,  the 
others  under  it  fmaller  and  fmaller,  fo  that  it  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  half  a  round  bafket.  It  is,  with  the  coals  it 
contains,  wholly  without  the  wall  that  fhuts  up  the  chim- 
ney, yet  the  fmoke  bends  and  enters  the  paflage  above  it, 
the  draft  being  ffrong,  becaufe  no  air  can  enter  that  is  not 
obliged  to  pafs  near  or  through  the  fire,  fo  that  all  that 
the  funnel  is  filled  with  is  much  heated,  and  of  courfe 
much  rarefied. 

D  Much 

■»  See  Appendix,  N  o  II. 


2-6. 


LETTER     CONCERNIN( 


STAFFORDSHIRE  FIRE-PLACE. 


SIDE    VIEW. 


FRONT    VIEW. 


Much  more  of  the  profperity  of  a  winter  country  de- 
pends on  the  plenty  and  cheapnefs  of  fuel,  than  is  gene- 
rally imagined.  In  travelling  I  have  obferved,  that  in 
thofe  parts  where  the  inhabitants  can  have  neither  wood 
nor  coal  nor  turfF  bat  at  exceflive  prices,  the  working  peo- 
ple live  in  miferable  hovels,  are  ragged,  and  have  nothing 
comfortable  about  them.  But  where  fuel  is  cheap,  (or 
where  they  have  the  art  of  managing  it  to  advantage)  they 
are  well  furniihed  with  necelTaries,  and  have  decent  habi- 
tations. The  obvious  reafon  is,  that  the  working  hours 
of  fuch  people  are  the  profitable  hours,  and  they  who  can- 
not afford  fufficient  fuel  have  fewer  fuch  hours  in  the 
twenty  four,  than  thofe  who  have  it  cheap  and  plenty  : 
For  much  of  the  domeftic  work  of  poor  women,  fuch  as 

fpinning, 


CHIMNEYS.  27 

fplnning,  fewing,  knitting; ;  and  of  the  men  in  thofe  ma- 
nufactures that  require  little  bodily  exercife,  cannot  well 
be  performed  where  the  fingers  are  numbed  with  cold  : 
Thofe  people,  therefore,  in  cold  weather,  are  induced  to  go 
to  bed  fooner,  and  b'e  longer  in  a  morning,  than  they 
w^ould  do  if  they  could  have  good  fires  or  warm  ftoves  to 
fit  by ;  and  their  hours  of  work  are  not  fufficient  to  pro- 
duce the  means  of  comfortable  fubfiftence.  Thofe  pub- 
lic works,  therefore,  fuch  as  roads,  canals,  &c.  by  which 
fuel  may  be  brought  cheap  into  fuch  countries  from  diliant 
places,  are  of  great  utility  ;  and  thofe  who  promote  them 
may  be  reckoned  among  the  benefadtors  of  mankind. 

I  have  great  pleafure  in  having  thus  complied  with  your 
requeft,  and  in  the  reflection  that  the  friendfhip  you  ho- 
nour me  with,  and  in  which  I  have  ever  been  fo  happy, 
has  continued  fo  many  years  without  the  fmallefl:  inter- 
ruption. Our  diftance  from  each  other  is  now  augment- 
ed, and  nature  muft  foon  put  an  end  to  the  pofhbility  of 
my  continuing  our  correfpondence  :  But  if  confciouihefs 
and  memory  remain  in  a  future  ftate,  my  efteem  and  re- 
fpeCl  for  you,  my  dear  friend,  will  be  everlafting. 

B.  F. 


D  2  APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX. 

NOTES    roR    the    LETTER    upon   CHIMNEYS. 


N°  I.     • 

""FHE  lateR-  work  on  architecture  that  I  have  feen,  is  that 
entitled  Nutshells,  which  appears  to  he  written  by 
a  very  Ingenious  man,  and  contains  a  table  of  the  propor- 
tions of  the  openings  of  chimneys  ;  but  they  relate  folely 
to  the  proportions  he  gives  his  rooms,  without  the  fmall- 
eft  regard  to  the  funnels.  And  he  remarks,  refpe£ting 
thofe  proportions,  that  they  are  fimilar  to  the  harmonic 
divifions  of  a  monochord*.  He  does  not  indeed  lay  much 
ftrefs  on  this  ;  but  it  fhows  that  we  like  the  appearance  of 
principles  ;  and  where  we  have  not  true  ones,  we  have 
fome  fatisfadion  in  producing  fuch  as  are  imaginary. 

N°  II. 

TpHE  defcription  of  the  Hiding   plates  here   promifed, 
and  which  hath  been  fince  brought  into  ufe  under  va- 
rious names,  with  fome  immaterial  changes,  is  contained 
in  a  former  letter  to  J.  B.  Efq.  as  follows  : 

To  J.  B.  Efq.  at  BoJloUf  in  Neiv-England. 

Dear  Sir,  London,  Dec.  2,  1758. 

I  HAVE  executed  here  an  eafy  fimple  contrivance,  that 
I  have  long  fince  had  in  fpeculation,  for  keeping  rooms 

warmer 

*  "  It  may  be  juft  remarked  here,  that  upon  comparing  thcfe  proportions  with  thofe  arifing 
"  from  the  common  divifions  of  the  monochord,  it  happens  that  the  firft  aiifwers  to  unifon, 
"  and  although  the  fecond  is  a  difcord,  the  third  ar.fwers  to  the  third  minor,  the  fourth  tothe 
"  third  major,  the  fifth  to  the  fourth,  the  fixth  to  the  fift!),  aaid  the  feveiith  lo  the  oaave." 
Nutshells,  page  85. 


APPENDIX.  29; 

warmer  in  cold  weather  than  they  generally  are,  and  with 
lefs  fire.  It  is  this.  The  opening  of  the  chimney  is  con- 
traaed,  by  brick-work  faced  with  marble  flabs,  to  about 
two  feet  between  the  jams,  and  the  breaft  brought  down 
to  within  about  three  feet  of  the  hearth. — An  iron  frame  is 
placed  jufl:  under  the  breaft,  and  extending  quite  to  the 
back  of  the  chimney,  fo  that  a  plate  of  the  fame  metal 
may  Aide  horizontally  backwards  and  forwards  in  the 
grooves  on  each  fide  of  the  frame.  This  plate  is  juft  fo 
large  as  to  fill  the  whole  fpace,  and  fhut  the  chimney  en- 
tirely when  thruft  quite  in,  which  is  convenient  when  there 
is  no  fire.  Drawing  it  out,  fo  as  to  leave  a  fpace  between  its 
further  edge  and  the  back,  of  about  two  inches;  this  fpace 
is  fufficient  for  the  fmoke  to  pafs ;  and  fo  large  a  part  of 
the  funnel  being  ftopt  by  the  reft  of  the  plate,  the  paftage 
of  warm  air  out  of  the  room,  up  the  chimney,  is  obftrucft- 
ed  and  retarded,  and  by  that  means  much  cold  air  is  pre- 
vented from  coming  in  through  crevices,  to  fupply  its 
place.  This  effect  is  made  manifeft  three  ways.  Firft, 
when  the  fire  burns  brifkly  in  cold  weather,  the  howling 
or  whiftling  noife  made  by  the  wind,  as  it  enters  the  room 
through  the  crevices,  when  the  chimney  is  open  as  ufual, 
ccafes  as  foon  as  the  plate  is  Aid  in  to  its  proper  diftance. 
Secondly,  opening  the  door  of  the  room  about  half  an  inch, 
and  holding  your  hand  againft  the  opening,  near  the  top 
of  the  door,  you  feel  the  cold  air  coming  in  againft  your 
hand,  but  weakly,  if  the  plate  be  in.  Let  another  perfon 
fuddenly  draw  it  out,  fo  as  to  let  the  air  of  the  room  go  up 
the  chimney,  with  its  ufual  freedom  where  chimneys  are 
open,  and  you  immediately  feel  the  cold  air  rufliing  in 
ftrongly.  Thirdly,  if  fomething  be  fet  againft  the  door, 
juft  fufficient,  when  the  plate  is  in,  to  keep  the  door  nearly 
Ihut,  by  refifting  the  prefliire  of  the  air  that  would  force 
it  open:  Then,  when  the  plate  is  drav/n  out,  the  door  will 
be  forced  open  by  the  increafed  prefiTure  of  the  outward 
cold  air  endeavouring  to  get  in  to  fupply  the  place  of  the 

warxii. 


30  APPENDIX. 

warm  air,  that  now  pafles  out  of  the  room  to  go  up  the 
chimney.  In  our  common  open  chimneys,  half  the  fuel 
is  wafted,  and  its  effect  loft;  the  air  it  has  warmed  being 
immediately  drawn  off.  Several  of  my  acquaintance  hav- 
ing feen  this  fimple  machine  in  my  room,  have  imitated 
it  at  their  own  houfes,  and  it  feems  likely  to  become  pretty 
common.  I  defcribe  it  thus  particularly  to  you,  becaufe  I 
think  it  would  be  ufeful  in  Bojlon-,  where  firing  is  often  dear. 

Mentioning  chimneys  puts  me  in  mind  of  a  property  I 
formerly  had  occafion  to  obferve  in  them,  which  I  have 
not  found  taken  notice  of  by  others;  it  is,  that  in  the  fum- 
mer  time,  when  no  fire  is  made  in  the  chimneys,  there  is, 
neverthelefs,  a  regular  draft  of  air  through  them;  continu- 
ally palTmg  upwards,  from  about  five  or  fix  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon,  till  eight  or  nine  o'clock  the  next  morning, 
M^hen  the  current  begins  to  flacken  and  hefitate  a  little,  for 
about  half  an  hour,  and  then  fets  as  ftrongly  down  again, 
which  it  continues  to  do  till  towards  five  in  the  afternoon, 
then  flackens  and  hefitates  as  before,  going  fometimes  a 
little  up,  then  a  little  down,  till  in  about  a  half  an  hour  it 
gets  into  a  fteady  upward  current  for  the  night,  which  con- 
tinues till  eight  or  nine  the  next  day;  the  hours  varying  a 
little  as  the  days  lengthen  and  fhorten,  and  fometimes  va- 
rying from  fudden  changes  in  the  weather;  as  if,  after  be- 
ing long  warm,  it  Ihould  begin  to  grow  cool  about  noon, 
while  the  air  was  coming  down  the  chimney,  the  current 
will  then  change  earlier  than  the  ufi.ial  hour,  <^c. 

This  property  in  chimneys  I  imagine  we  might  turn  to 
fome  account,  and  render  improper,  for  the  future,  the  old 
faying,  as  iifelefs  as  a  chimney  infiamner.  If  the  opening 
of  the  chimney,  from  the  breaft  down  to  the  hearth,  be 
clofed  by  a  llight  moveable  frame  or  two,  in  the  manner 
of  doors,  covered  with  canvas,  that  will  let  the  air  through, 
but  keep  out  the  flies;  and  another  little  frame  fet  within 
upon  the  hearth,  with  hooks  on  which  to  hang  joints  of 
meat,  fowls,  d;v.  wrapt  well  in  wet  linen  cloths,  three  or 

four 


APPENDIX.  31 

four  fold,  I  am  confident  that  if  the  linen  is  kept  wet,  by 
fprinkling  it  once  a  day,  the  meat  would  be  fo  cooled  by  the 
evaporation,  carried  on  continually  by  means  of  the  palhng 
air,  that  it  would  keep  a  week  or  more  in  the  hotteft  wea- 
ther. Butler  and  milk  might  likewife  be  kept  cool,  in  vef- 
fels  or  bottles  covered  with  wet  cloths.  A  Ihallow  tray,  or 
keelcr,  fhould  be  under  the  frame  to  receive  any  water  that 
might  drip  from  the  wetted  cloths.  I  think,  too,  that  this 
property  of  chimneys  might,  by  means  of  fmoke-jack  vanes, 
be  applied  to  fome  mechanical  purpofes,  where  a  fmall  but 
pretty  conftant  power  only  is  wanted. 

If  you  would  have  my  opinion  of  the  caufe  of  this  chang- 
ing current  of  air  in  chimneys,  it  is,  in  fliort,  as  follows. 
In  lummer  time  there  is  generally  a  great  difference  in  the 
warmth  of  the  air  at  mid-day  and  midnight,  and,  of  courfe, 
a  difference  of  fpecific  gravity  in  the  air,  as  the  more  it  is 
warmed  the  more  it  is  rarefied.  The  funnel  of  a  chimney 
being  for  the  moft  part  fiarrounded  by  the  houfe,  is  pro- 
teded,  in  a  great  meaiiire,  from  the  diredt  adtion  of  the 
fun's  rays,  and  alfo  from  the  coldnefs  of  the  night  air.  It 
thence  preferves  a  middle  temperature  between  the  heat  of 
the  day,  and  the  coldnefs  of  the  night.  This  middle  tem- 
perature it  communicates  to  the  air  contained  in  it.  If 
the  ftate  of  the  outward  air  be  cooler  than  that  in  the  fun- 
nel of  the  chimney,  it  will,  by  being  heavier,  force  it  to 
rife,  and  go  out  at  the  top.  What  fiapplies  its  place  from 
below,  being  warmed,  in  its  turn,  by  the  warmer  funnel, 
is  likewife  forced  up  by  the  colder  and  weightier  air  below, 
and  fo  the  current  is  continued  till  the  next  day,  when  the 
fun  gradually  changes  the  ftate  of  the  outward  air,  makes 
it  firft  as  warm  as  the  funnel  of  the  chimney  can  make  it, 
(when  the  current  begins  to  hefitate)  and  afterwards  warm- 
er. Then  the  funnel  being  cooler  than  the  air  that  comes 
into  it,  cools  that  air,  makes  it  heavier  than  the  outward 
air,  of  courfe  it  defcends;  and  what  fucceeds  it  from  a- 
bove,  being  cooled  in  its  turn,  the  defcending  current  con- 
tinues: 


32  APPENDIX. 

tinucs  till  towards  evening,  when  it  again  liefitates  and 
changes  its  courfe,  from  the  change  of  warmth  in  the 
outward  air,  and  the  nearly  remaining  fame  middle  tem- 
perature in  the  funnel. 

Upon  this  principle,  if  a  houfe  were  built  behind  Beacofi- 
hilly  an  adit  carried  from  one  of  the  doors  into  the  hill  ho- 
rizontally, till  it  met  with  a  perpendicular  ihaft  funk  from 
its  top,  it  feems  probable  to  me,  that  thofe  who  lived  in  the 
houfe,  would  conftantly,  in  the  heat  even  of  the  calmeft 
day,  have  as  much  cool  air  paffmg  through  the  houfe,  as 
they  fhould  chufe;  and  the  fame,  though  reverfed  in  its 
current,  during  the  flilleft  night. 

I  think,  too,  this  property  might  be  made  of  ufe  to  mi- 
ners; as  where  feveral  fhafts  or  pits  are  funk  perpendicu- 
larly into  the  earth,  communicating  at  bottom  by  horizon- 
tal paffages,  which  is  a  common  cafe,  if  a  chimney  of  thirty 
or  forty  feet  high  were  built  over  one  of  the  fhafts,  or  fo 
near  the  ihaft,  that  the  chimney  might  communicate  with 
the  top  of  the  fhaft,  all  air  being  excluded  but  what  fhould 
pafs  up  or  down  by  the  fhaft,  a  conflant  change  of  air 
would,  by  this  means,  be  produced  in  the  paflages  below, 
tending  to  fecure  the  workmen  from  thofe  damps  which 
fo  frequently  incommode  them.  For  the  frefh  air  would 
be  almoft  always  going  down  the  open  fhaft,  to  go  up  the 
chimney,  or  down  the  chimney  to  go  up  the  fliaft.  Let 
me  add  one  obfervation  more,  which  is,  that  if  that  part 
of  the  funnel  of  a  chimney,  which  appears  above  the 
roof  of  a  houfe,  be  pretty  long,  and  have  three  of  its  fides 
expofed  to  the  heat  of  the  fun  fucceffively,  viz.  when  he  is 
in  the  eaft,  in  the  fouth,  and  in  the  weft,  while  the  north 
fide  is  fheltered  by  the  building  from  the  cool  northerly 
winds  ;  fuch  a  chimney  will  often  be  fo  heated  by  the 
fun,  as  to  continue  the  draft  ftrongly  upwards,  through  the 
whole  twenty  four  hours,  and  often  for  many  days  toge- 
ther. If  the  outfide  of  fuch  a  chimney  be  painted  black, 
the  efFed:  will  be  ftill  greater,  and  the  current  ftronger. 

N°  III. 


APPENDIX.  S3 

N"  III. 

T  T  is  faid  the  northern  Chhiefe  have  a  method  of  warm- 
ing their  ground  floors,  which  is  ingenious.  Thofe 
floors  are  made  of  tile  a  foot  fquare  and  two  inches  thick, 
their  corners  being  fupported  by  bricks  fet  on  end,  that 
are  a  foot  long  and  four  inches  fquare,  the  tiles,  too,  join 
into  each  other,  by  ridges  and  hollows  along  their  fides. 
This  forms  a  hollow  under  the  whole  floor,  which  on  one 
fide  of  the  houfe  has  an  opening  into  the  air,  where  a  fire 
is  made,  and  it  has  a  funnel  riling  from  the  other  fide  to 
carry  off  the  fmoke.  The  fuel  is  a  fulphurous  pitcoal, 
the  fmell  of  which  in  the  room  is  thus  avoided,  while  the 
floor  and  of  courfe  the  room  is  well  warmed.  But  as  the 
underfide  of  the  floor  muft  grow  foul  with  foot,  and  a  thick 
coat  of  foot  prevents  much  of  the  dire£l  application  of  the 
hot  air  to  the  tiles,  I  conceive  that  burning  the  fmoke  by 
obliging  it  to  defcend  through  red  coals,  would  in  this 
conrtrudlion  be  very  advantageous,  as  more  heat  would  be 
given  by  the  flame  than  by  the  fmoke,  and  the  floor  be- 
ing thereby  kept  free  from  foot  would  be  more  heated 
with  lefs  fire.  For  this  purpofe  I  would  propofe  ereding 
the  funnel  clofe  to  the  grate,  fo  as  to  have  only  an  iron 
plate  between  the  fire  and  the  funnel,  through  which  plate 
the  air  in  the  funnel  being  heated,  it  will  be  fure  to  draw 
well,  and  force  the  fmoke  to  defcend,  as  in  the  figure 
Fieure'o  "v^'here  A  is  the  funnel  or  chimney,  B  the  grate  on 
which  the  fire  is  placed,  C  one  of  the  apertures 
through  which  the  defcending  fmoke  is  drawn  into  the  chan- 
nel D  of  figure  lo,  along  which  channel  it  is  conveyed  by  a 
circuitous  rout,  as  defignated  by  the  arrows,  until  it  ar- 
rives at  the  ihiall  aperture  E,  figure  lo,  through  which  it 
enters  the  funnel  F.  G  in  both  figures  is  the  iron  plate 
againft  which  the  fire  is  made,  which  being  heated  there- 
by, will  rarefy  the  air  in  that  part  of  the  funnel,  and  caufe 
the  finoke  to  afcend  rapidly.     The  flame  thus  dividing 

E  from 


34  A  P  P  E  N  D  I  S. 

from  the  grate  to  the  right  and  left,  and  turning  in  paf— 
iages  difpoied,  as  in  figure  13,  fo  as  that  every  part  of  the 
floor  may  be  vifited  by  it  before  it  enters  the  funnel  F,  by 
the  two  paflages  E  E,  very  little  of  the  heat  w^ill  be  loft,, 
and  a  winter  room  thus  rendered  very  comfortable. 

N°   IV. 

pAGE  8.  Fe'w  can  tmagitte,  &c.  It  is  faid  the  Ice- 
landers have  very  little  fuel,  chiefly  drift  wood  that 
comes  upon  their  coaft.  To  receive  more  advantage  from 
its  heat,  they  make  their  doors  low,  and  have  a  ftage  round 
the  room  above  the  door,  like  a  gallery,  wherein  the  wo- 
men can  fit  and  work,  the  men  read  or  write,  &c.  The 
roof  being  tight,  the  warm  air  is  confined  by  it  and  kept 
from  rifing  higher  and  efcaping  ;  and  the  cold  air  which 
enters  the  houfc  when  the  door  is  opened,  cannot  rife 
above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  door,  becaufe  it  is  hea- 
vier than  the  warm  air  above  the  door,  and  fo  thofe  in  the 
gallery  are  not  incommoded  by  it.  Some  of  our  too  lofty 
rooms  might  have  a  ftage  fo  conftrufted  as  to  make  a  tem- 
porary gallery  above,  for  the  winter,  to  be  taken  away  in 
fummer.  Sedentary  people  would  find  much  comfort 
there  in  cold  weather. 

N°  V. 

p  AGE  26.  Where  they  ha've  the  art  of  managing  it,  &c. 
In  fome  houfes  of  the  lower  people  among  the  northern 
nations  of  Europe,  and  among  the  poorer  fort  of  Germans 
in  Pennfylvania,  I  have  obferved  this  conftru£tion,  which 
appears  very  advantageous.    A  is  the  kitchen  with  its  chim- 
ney;  B  an  iron  ftove  in  the  ftove-room.  In  a  corner 
Fi^urJ'ii.  °f  ^^^  chimney  is  a  hole  through  the  back  into  the. 
ftove,  to  put  in  fuel,  and  another  hole  above  it  to  let 
the  fmoke  of  the  ftove  come  back  into  the  chimney.  As  foon 
as  the  cooking  is  over,  the  brands  in  the  kitchen  chimney  are 

put 


APPENDIX.  35 

put  through  the  hole  to  fupply  the  (love,  fo  that  there  is 
feldom  more  than  one  fire  burning  at  a  time.  In  the  floor 
over  the  ftove-room,  is  a  Imall  trap  door,  to  let  the  warm 
air  rife  occafionally  into  the  chamber.  Thus  the  whole 
houfe  is  warmed  at  little  expence  of  wood,  and  the  flove- 
room  kept  conftantly  warm ;  fo  that  in  the  coldeft  winter 
nights,  they  can  work  late,  and  find  the  room  ftill  com- 
fortable when  they  rife  to  work  early.  An  Englifh  farm- 
er in  America  who  makes  great  fires  in  large  open  chim- 
neys, needs  the  conftant  employment  of  one  man  to  cut 
and  haul  wood  for  fupplying  them  ;  and  the  draft  of  cold 
air  to  them  is  fo  ftrong,  that  the  heels  of  his  family  are 
frozen  while  they  are  fcorching  their  faces,  and  the  room 
is  never  warm,  fo  that  little  fedentary  work  can  be  done 
by  them  in  winter.  The  difference  in  this  article  alone 
of  oeconomy,  fhall,  in  a  courfe  of  years,  enable  the  Ger- 
man to  buy  out  the  Englifhman,  and  take  pofTefTion  of 
his  plantation. 

-     MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS. 

r^HIMNEYS  whofe  funnels  go  up  in  the  north  wall  of 
a  houfe  and  are  expofed  to  the  north  winds,  are  not  fo 
apt  to  draw  well  as  thofe  in  a  fouth  wall ;  becaufe  whea 
rendered  cold  by  thofe  winds,  they  draw  downwards. 

Chimneys  enclofed  in  the  body  of  a  houfe  are  better  than 
thofe  whofe  funnels  are  expofed  in  cold  walls. 

Chimneys  in  ftacks  are  apt  to  draw  better  than  feparate 
funnels,  becaufe  the  funnels  that  have  conftant  fires  in 
them,  warm  the  others  in  fome  degree  that  have  none. 

One  of  the  funnels  in  a  houfe  I  once  occupied,  had  a  parti- 
cular funnel  joined  to  the  fouth  fide  of  the  ftack,  fo  that  three 
ot  its  fides  were  expofed  to  the  fun  in  the  courfe  of  the  day, 
viz.  the  eaft  fide  E  during  the  morning,  the  fouth  fide 
ri'uriij.   ^  i"  ^^^  middle  part  of  the  day,  and  the  weft  fide  W 
during  the  afternoon,  while  its  north  fide  was  flielter- 
E  2  ed 


36  APPENDIX. 

ed  by  the  ftack  from  the  cold  whids.  This  funnel,  which 
came  from  the  ground  floor,  and  had  a  confiderable  height 
I  above  the  roof,  was  conftantly  in  a  ftrong  drawing  ftate 

day  and  night,  winter  and  fummer. 

Blacking  of  funnels  expofed  to  the  fun,  would  probably 
make  them  draw  ftill  flronger. 

In  Paris  I  faw  a  fire-place  fo  ingenioufly  contrived  as  to 
ferve  conveniently  two  rooms,  a  bedchamber  and  a  ftudy. 
The  funnel  over  the  fire  was  round.  The  fire-place  was 
I  of  caft  iron,  having  an  upright  back  A,  and  two  ho- 

piate  I.      i-i-2;ontal  femicircular  plates  B  C,  the  whole  fo  order- 

Iigure  13.  r  _  '_ 

ed  as  to  turn  on  the  pivots  D  E.     The  plate  B  al- 
ways flopped  that  part  of  the  round  funnel  that  was  next 
to  the  room  without  fire,  while  the  other  half  of  the  fun- 
nel over  the  fire  was  always  open.     By  this  means  a  fervant 
^  in  the  morning  could  make  a  fire  on  the  hearth  C,  then  in 

|-  the  ftudy,  without  difturbing  the  mafter  by  going  into  his 

f  chamber  ;  and  the  mailer  when  he  rofe,  could  with  a  touch 

of  his  foot  turn  the  chimney  on  its  pivots,  and  bring  the 
{  fire  into  his  chamber,  keep  it  there  as  long  as  he  wanted. 

it,  and  turn  it  again  when  he  went  out  into  his  ftudy.  The 
room  which  had  no  fire  in  it,  was  alfo  warmed  by  the  heat 
coming  through  the  back  plate,  and  fpreading  iu  the  room 
as  it  could  not  go  up  the  chimney. 


Explanation 


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■  [27    ] 

N°  11.  I 

Explanation   of  an   Optical  Deception.. 

BY    D.    RITTENHOUSE. 

^^t^"o^  OOME  experiments  were  long  ago  commu- 
k3  nicated  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
fhewing,  that  through  the  double  microfcope,  the  furfaces 
of  bodies  fometimes  appear  to  be  reverfed,  that  is,  thofe 
parts  which  are  elevated  feem  depreffed,  and  the  contrary. 
But  the  caufe  of  this  appearance,  for  any  thing  I  know, 
remains  ftill  to  be  explained. 

In  order  to  produce  this  effe<£l,  no  other  apparatus  is 
neceffary  than  two  convex  lenfes  placed  in  a  tube,  at  a 
diftance  from  each  other  nearly  equal  to  the  fum  of  their 
focal  diflances.  Through  thefe  glalfes,  objects  that  appear 
diftindly,  always  appear  inverted ;  for  they  are  not  feeii 
diredtly,  but  by  means  of  an  image  formed  either  between 
the  two  glafles,  or  between  both  of  them  and  the  eye. 

If  we  look  through  fuch  glafles  at  cornifhes,  pifture 
frames  and  other  mouldings  in  carpenters  work,  and  fome 
forts  of  carved  work,  thofe  parts  which  are  raifed  general- 
ly appear  deprefl^ed,  and  thofe  parts  which  are  deprefled 
appear  raifed.  But  a  very  ready  objed,  and  which  fuc- 
ceeds  as  well  as  any  thing  I  know  of,  is  a  brick  pave- 
ment ;  whether  it  be  a  chimney-hearth,  or  pavement  out 
of  doors.  Viewed  through  the  tube  above  defcribed,  every 
little  cavity  in  the  bricks,  and  the  chinks  between  them, 
almoft  always  appear  to  be  fo  many  elevations  above  the 
lurface  of  the  bricks. 

When  I  confiderfed  this  odd  appearance,  the  firfl  pro- 
bable caufe  that  off'crcd  was,  that  thofe  parts  of  the  object 
which  are  funk,  and  fartheft  from  the  eye,   might  have 
their  correfpondent  parts  of  the  image  formed  by  the  glaf— 
fes  neareft  to  the  eye,  and  therefore  would  appear  raifed. 

But 


38  EXPLANATION  of  an 

But  this  is  not  the  cafe;  for  thofe  parts  which  are  fartheft 
from  the  eye  in  the  obje£t,  will  always  be  fartheft  from, 
the  eye  in  the  image,  and  often  in  a  much  greater  propor- 
tion. After  fome  time  I  concluded  it  to  be  a  neceffary 
confequencc  of  the  apparent  inverfion  of  the  obje£t ;  and 
many  things  tended  to  confirm  me  in  this  opinion,  before 
I  made  the  experiments  which  feem  perfectly  decifive. 

It  has  often  been  matter  of  fur  prize  to  me,  when  view- 
ing the  moon  through  a  good  telefcope,  in  company  with 
perfons  not  accuftomed  to  fuch  obfervations,  that  whilft 
the  cavities  and  eminences  of  the  moon's  furface  appeared 
to  me  marked  out  with  the  utmoft  certainty  by  their  light 
and  fhades,  my  companions  generally  conceived  it  to  be 
a  plain  furface  of  various  degrees  of  brightnefs.  The  rea- 
fon  I  fuppofe  to  be  this ;  the  aftronomer  knows  from  the 
moon's  fituation  with  refpeft  to  the  fun,  and  even  from 
the  figure  of  its  enlightened  part,  precifely  in  what  direc- 
tion the  light  falls  on  its  furface,  and  therefore  judges 
rightly  of  its  hills  and  vallies,  from  their  different  degrees 
of  light,  according  to  thofe  rules  which  are  imperceptibly 
formed  in  the  mind,  and  confirmed  by  long  experience. 
But  a  perfon  unacquainted  with  aftronomy  knows  nothing 
of  the  direction  of  the  fun's  light  on  the  moon,  nor  does 
he  attend  to  the  moon's  globular  figure,  and  is  befides, 
perhaps,  poffefled  with  a  notion  of  its  being  felf-luminous; 
no- wonder  then  that  the  fame  objedl;  has  a  very  different 
efFe£t  on  his  imagination.  It  feems  to  be  thofe  rules  of 
judging,  which  we  begin  to  form  in  our  earlieft  infancy, 
which  we  fet  alide,  re-elhiblifh,  alter,  corred:  and  confirm, 
and  at  length  rely  on  with  the  utmoft  confidence,  even 
without  knowing  that  we  do  fo,  or  that  we  have  any  fuch 
rules  :  It  is  thefe  rules,  of  fiich  infinite  general  ufe  to  us, 
that  fometimes  miflead  us  on  new  and  extraordinary  oc- 
cafions,  and  particularly  in  the  cafe  now  before  us.  A 
perfon  entering  into  a  room  perceives,  at  a  fingle  glance, 
whence  the  light  comes  which  illuminates  the  objedls  be- 
fore 


OPTICAL   DECEPTION.  39 

fore  him  ;  and  tliat  without  remaining  confcious  for  a  mo- 
ment that  he  has  attended  to  this  circumftance  :  But  the 
effed;  remains,  and  will  influence  his  judgment.  If  on 
looking  at  a  brick  hearth  he  perceives  that  thofe  lines  which 
divide  the  bricks  have  a  dark  fhade  on  that  fide  oppoiite 
to  the  light,  and  a  bright  ftreak  on  the  contrary  fide  next 
to  the  light,  he  muft  at  the  fame  time  perceive  that  they 
have  the  property  which  he  has  conftantly  obferved  in 
ridges,  not  in  furrows.  And  iince  the  appearance  ot  the 
hearth  will  be  fijch,  through  the  glaiTes,  in  confequence  of 
their  inverting  the  fituation  of  its  feveral  parts,  with  refpect 
to  the  light,  the  obferver  will  inftantly  pronounce  the  chinks 
between  the  bricks,  and  every  little  cavity  in  them,  to  be 
fo  many  perfect  elevations  above  the  common  furface,  nor 
can  any  effort  of  the  mind  corredt  the  imagination  or  alter 
the  appearance. 

Though  I  was  well  fatisfied  of  the  truth  of  this  expla- 
nation, 1  relolved  nevertheleis  to  bring  it  to  the  teft  of  ex- 
periment, which  I  did  in  the  following  manner. 

In  order  to  give  my  experiment  fair  play,  1  fhut  all  the 
windows  of  my  chamber  excepting  one  dire£tly  oppofite 
to  the  chimney.  I  then  took  the  tube,  with  two  convex 
glafles,  and  looking  through  it  at  the  hearth,  all  the  bricks 
appeared  deprefled  and  the  clefts  between  them  elevated, 
as  ufijal.  I  then  placed  a  looking-glafs  againft  the  chim- 
ney back,  fo  that  it  refle(fled  the  light  from  the  window 
upon  the  hearth,  and  fet  up  a  fmall  board  before  the  hearth 
to  intercept  the  dire£l  light  ot  the  window  from  it.  Then 
looking  at  the  hearth  through  the  glalfes,  I  was  much 
pleafed  to  find  it  appear  in  its  natural  ftate,  with  the  bricks 
elevated.  I  then  fat  down  on  a  chair  at  the  edge  of  the 
hearth,  and  looking  through  the  tube  which  I  held  to  my 
eye  with  one  hand,  whilft  with  the  other  I  moved  the 
board  fo  as  to  make  it  fometimes  intercept  the  direcl  light: 
of  the  window,  and  at  other  times  the  reflected  light  of 
the  looking-glafs,  1  conftantly  found  that  when  the  hearth; 

waa- 


4©  EXPLANATION  of  an 

was  Illuminated  by  refleded  light,  it  appeared  in  its  na- 
tural ftate,  and  when  illuminated  by  the  diretl  light,  in  its 
unnatural  ftate  ;  for  fo  I  call  it  when  the  bricks  appear  de- 
prefled  and  the  chinks  between  them  elevated. 

I  then  confidered  that  fince  the  hearth  appeared  in  its 
natural  ftate  by  refleded  light,  and  in  its  unnatural  ftate 
by  dired  light,  only  in  confequence  of  the  inverting  pro- 
perty of  the  glaftes,  the  appearance  ought  to  be  diredly 
the  contrary  when  it  was  viewed  with  the  naked  eye.  And 
accordingly  I  found,  upon  taking  out  both  of  the  glafles, 
and  looking  through  the  open  tube,  that  the  hearth  ap- 
peared as  perfedly,  and  as  conftantly  in  its  unnatural  ftate 
by  refleded  light,  and  in  its  natural  ftate  by  dired  light,  as 
it  had  before  done  the  reverfe  through  the  glafles.  But  it 
muft  be  obferved  that  fomething  like  a  tube  is  neceflary  to 
confine  the  fight  from  other  adjoining  objeds,  which  not 
being  in  the  fame  circumftances  would  otherwife  corred 
the  imagination. 

If  we  look  through  fuch  a  tube  and  glaflfes  at  the  hearth 
or  other  objed,  fuppofe  a  piece  ot  chocolate,  the  furrows 
in  it  appear  fo  many  ridges,  on  removing  the  tube  they 
fink  into  furrows,  on  applying  it  they  again  rife  into  ridges, 
and  the  illufion  mij^ht  perhaps  be  repeated  a  thoufand 
times,  without  the  mind  being  at  all  able  to  conceive  the 
objed  to  appear  through  the  tube  like  what  it  really  is. 
But  if  whilft  you  are  looking  through  the  tube,  and  the 
objed  appears  in  its  unnatural  ftate,  that  is,  when  its  fur- 
rows appear  ridges,  you  apply  your  finger  and  feel  that 
they  really  are  furrows,  the  deception  vaniflies  in  a  mo- 
ment and  the  objed  appears  in  its  natural  ftate.  This  I 
at  firft  fuppofed  to  arife  from  the  fuperior  confidence  which 
we  have  in  the  fenfe  ot  touching,  as  knowing  by  experi- 
ence that  this  fenfe  more  perfedly  reprefents  the  figure  of 
bodies  than  the  fight  does.  But  I  was,  at  leaft  in  part, 
miftaken.  For  if  whilft  you  fee  the  objed  in  its  unnatu- 
ral ftate,  another  perfon  puts  his  finger  to  the  part  you  are 

looking 


OPTICAL  DECEPTION.  41 

looking  at,  the  deception  vaniflies  as  well  as  in  the  former 
cafe.  The  application  of  a  writing  pen  or  pencil  will  pro- 
duce the  fame  effed:.  And,  which  is  very  remarkable, 
after  the  mind  has  been  undeceived  by  thefe  means  once 
or  twice,  it  does  not  readily  admit  of  the  impofition  again: 
Though,  as  I  obferved  before,  if  it  be  done  by  removing 
the  glafles,  the  deception  will  return  again  as  often  as  you 
pleafe.  ^  The  truth  feems  to  be,  that  the  mind  chufes  the 
leaft  difficulty;  and  though  in  confequence  of  the  judg- 
ment it  has  formed  concerning  the  diretlion  of  the  light. 
It  will  fubmit  to  fuch  a  fmall  impofition  as  to  fuppofe  one 
piece  of  chocolate  may  have  ridges  where  others  ufually 
have  furrows,  when  indeed  it  has  not,  yet  it  will  not  rea- 
dily endure  fuch  a  grofs  one,  as  to  fuppofe  it  to  have  cavities 
of  the  figure  and  colour  of  a  finger  or  a  writing  pen.  Or 
perhaps  the  vifible  motion  attending  fuch  application  pro- 
duces the  principal  effed:  in  convincing  the  mind  that  thofe 
bodies  are  really  elevated*,  and  then  their  fhades  and  mo- 
difications of  the  light,  fhew  in  what  diredion  it  falls  on 
them;  and  the  miffake  of  the  mind  in  that  particular  be- 
ing redified,  the  whole  obje£t  muft  affume  its  natural  ap- 
pearance. 

The  explanation  1  have  given  of  this  phrEnomenon  will 
account  for  an  odd  circumflance  mentioned  (I  think)  by 
Mr.  Short;  which  once  appeared  fo  whimfical  to  me  as  nei- 
ther to  merit  credit  or  attention.  Mr.  Short  carefully  ex- 
amined the  Cafl^egrain  telefcope,  and  in  all  probability  fet 
it  by  the  fide  of  one  of  the  Gregorian  form,  in  order  to  de- 
termine its  comparative  merits :  He  gives  the  preference 
to  the  Gregorian,  and  mentions  as  a  principal  defed  of  the 
CaiTegrain  telefcope,  that  it  reprefents  the  mountains  in  the 
moon  as  vallies,  and  the  contrary.     I  doubt  not  but  this, 

F  otherwife 

"  Whilft  I  was  making  thefe  experiments,  I  thought  of  a  carved  filver  flioe  buckle,  as  a  very 
proper  objefl  to  prevent  a  deception  of  this  fort  i'roin  taking  place.  But  placing  it  on  a  brick 
pavement,  and  looking  at  it  through  the  glaffes,  it  neverthelefs  appeared  perfedly  depreffed. 
Prccifely  as  if  you  had  taken  a  huclde  and  brewing  on  it  a  white  lliining  powder,  had  preffcd 
■it  into  the  brick  wliilft  foft,  and  then  removing  the  buckle,  the  glittering  powder  had  remaiiiod 
ia  the  impreilion. 


42  DESCRIPTION  OF  the 

otherwife  unaccountable  appearance,  was  occafioned  intire- 
]y  by  its  inverting  the  obje£l,  for  the  reafons  above  given. 
If  it  be  afked,  why  then  do  not  the  common  long  refrac- 
tors, which  generally  invert,  produce  the  fame  decepti- 
on? I  anfwer,  very  probably  they  would  do  fo  if  fet  befide 
a  Gregorian  refledlor  and  the  eye  applied  alternately  to  the 
one  and  to  the  other*,. 


N°  III. 
Defcnption  of  the  White  Mountains  in  Neii'-HampJIAre^ 

By  the  Rev.  JEREMY  BELKNAP  of  New-Hampshire. 

Readoa.  T  I  ijJE  white  mountains  in  the  northern  part 
X  of  New-Hampfhire  have,  from  the  earlieft 
fettlement  of  the  country,  attra<fted  the  attention  of  all 
forts  of  perfons.  They  are  undoubtedly  the  higheft  lands 
in  New-England,  and  are  difcovered  in  clear  weather  by 
veffels  coming  on  the  eaftern  coaft,  before  any  other  land,; 
but  by  reafon  of  their  bright  appearance  are  frequently 
miftaken  for  clouds.  They  are  feen  on  fhore  at  the  diftance 
of  fixty  or  eighty  miles  on  the  fouth  and  fouth-eaft  fides, 
and  are  faid  to  be  plainly  vifible  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Quebec.  The  Indians  had  a  fuperftitious  veneration  for 
them  as  the  habitation  of  invifible  beings,  and  for  this 
reafon  never  ventured  to  afcend  their  fummits,  and  always 
endeavoured  to  difcourage  every  perfon  who  attempted  it. 
From  them,  and  the  captives  whom  they  formerly  led  to 
Canada  through  the  pafs  of  thefe  mountains,  many  fiiftions 
have  been  propagated  through  the  country  which  have  in 
time  fwelkd  to  marvellous  and  incredible  ftories ;  particu- 
larly, 

*  The  above  'was  written  in  1774,  when  I  had  no  achromatic  aflronomical  tcJeicorc  in  iny 
poITeirion. 


WHITE    MOUNTAINS.  43 

larly,  it  has  been  reported  that  carbuncles  have  been  ken 
at  immenfe  heights,  and  inacceflible  fpots  which  give  a 
luftre  in  the  night. 

Thofe  who  have  attempted  to  give  an  account  of  thefc 
mountains,  have  alcribed  their  brightneis  to  fliining  rocks 
or  white  mofs,  and  the  higheft  fummit  has  been  reprefent- 
ed  as  inacccffible  by  realbn  of  the  extreme  cold  which 
threatens  to  freeze  the  traveller  in  the  midft  of  fammer. 
They  have  alfo  differed  fo  widely  from  each  other,  and 
their  accounts  have  been  embellillied  with  fo  many  mar- 
vellous circumftances,  and  on  the  whole  have  been  fo  un- 
fatisfadlory,  that  I  have  long  wilLed  for  an  opportunity  to 
vifit  thefe  mountains  in  company  with  fome  gentlemen  of 
a  philofophical  turn,  furnifhed  with  proper  inftruments 
and  materials  for  a  full  exploration  of  the  phenomena  that 
might  occur.  This  pleafure  I  have  in  part  enjoyed  the 
prefent  fummer  ;  and  though  the  roughncfs  of  the  way 
which  prevented  the  ufe  of  convenient  carriages,  proved 
fatal  to  fome  of  our  inftruments,  and  the  almoft  continual 
cloudinefs  of  the  weather  while  we  were  in  that  region, 
hindered  us  from  making  fome  obfervations  which  we  in- 
tended; yet  till  a  better  account  can  be  obtained,  I  flatter 
myfelf  that  what  follows  will  prove  more  I'atisfadtory  than 
any  which  has  yet  been  publUhed  or  reported. 

The  white  mountains  are  the  higheft  part  of  a  ridge 
which  extends  north-eaft  and  fouth-weft  to  an  unknown 
length.  The  area  of  their  bafe  is  an  irregular  figure  fome- 
what  refembling  an  iibceles  triangle,  whofe  longeft  ex- 
tremity is  toward  the  fouth,  and  whofe  whole  circuit  can- 
not be  lefs  than  fifty  miles.  The  number  of  fummits 
within  this  area  cannot  be  afcertained  at  prefent,  the  coun- 
try round  them  being  a  thick  wildernefs.  On  the  north- 
weft  fide  feven  fummits  are  in  plain  view,  and  this  is  the 
greateft  number  that  can  be  ken  at  once  from  any  Ration 
that  is  cleared  of  woods.  Of  thefe,  four  at  leaft  are  bald. 
The  higheft  of  them  is  on  the  eaftern  fide  of  the  clufter, 

F  2  on 


44  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE 

on  which  fide  we  afcended,  having  firft  gained  the  height 
of  land  between  the  waters  of  Saco  and  Amarifcogin  rivers, 
to  which  there  is  a  gradual  afcent  for  twelve  miles  from 
the  plains  of  Pigwacket.  At  this  height  of  land  there  is 
a  meadow  which  was  formerly  a  beaver-pond  with  a  dam 
at  each  end.  The  water  iffues  out  of  a  mountain  on  its 
caftern  fide  in  the  formof  fprings,  and  meandering  through 
the  channels  of  the  meadow  appears  ilagnant  in  the  mid- 
dle but  dividing  its  courfe,  at  the  fouth  end  of  the  meadow 
it  runs  into  Ellis  river,  a  branch  of  Saco  ;  and  at  the  north 
end  into  Peabody  river,  a  branch  of  Amarifcogin.  From 
this  meadow  there  is  an  uninterrupted  afcent  on  a  ridge 
between  two  deep  gullies  to  the  higheft  fummit. 

The  fides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  fpruce  trees ; 
the  furface  is  compofed  of  loofe  rocks  covered  with  very 
long  green  mofs,  which  reaches  from  rock  to  rock,  and 
is  in  many  places  fo  thick  and  ftrong  as  to  fupport  a  man's 
weight.  This  immenfe  bed  of  mofs,  fpread  over  the  fur- 
face  of  thefe  mountains  ferves,  as  a  fpunge  to  retain  the 
moifture  brought  by  the  clouds  and  vapors  which  are  con- 
tinually rifing  and  gathering  round  the  mountains;  the 
thick  growth  of  fpruce  prevents  the  fun's  rays  from  pene- 
trating to  exhale  it ;  fo  that  there  is  a  conftant  fupply  of 
water  to  the  numberlefs  fprings  with  which  this  region 
abounds,  and  an  unceafing  circulation  of  fluid,  the  procefs 
of  which  is  highly  entertaining  to  the  fpedator  ;  for  no 
fooncr  has  a  fhower  defcended  from  the  clouds,  but  the 
vapor  rifcs  from  the  leaves  of  the  fbreft  in  innumerable 
little  columns,  which,  having  gained  a  certain  height  in 
the  atmofphere,  colledl  and  converge  toward  the  moun- 
tains, where  they  either  fall  again  in  fliowers  or  are  im.- 
bibed  by  the  mofs  and  depofited  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks, 
feeking  their  way  to  the  hard  ftratum  or  pan  which  is 
impenetrable,  and  which  guides  them  till  they  find  vent 
in  fprings.  The  fame  liquid  tribute  is  daily  exhaled  from 
the  rivers,  ponds  and  low  grounds,  and  attracted  to  the 

mountains, 


WHITE   MOUNTAINS.  45 

mountains,  which  by  thefe  means  are  always  repleniflied 
with  water  in  every  part. 

The  rocks,  of  which  thefe  mountains  are  compofed,  are 
in  fome  parts  flate,  in  others  flint,  but  toward  the  top  a 
dark  grey  ftone,  which,  when  broken,  fliows  fpecks  of 
ifing-glafs.  On  the  bald  parts  of  the  mountains  the  ftones 
are  covered  with  a  Ihort  grey  mofs,  and  at  the  very  fum- 
mit  the  mofs  is  of  a  yellowilh  colour  and  adheres  hrmly 
to  the  rock. 

Eight  of  our  company  afcended  the  higheft  mountain 
on  the  24th  of  July,  and  were  fix  hours  and  fifty  one 
minutes  in  gaining  the  fummit,  deduding  one  hour  and 
thirty  eight  minutes  for  the  neceflary  ftops.  The  fpruce 
and  firs,  as  you  afcend,  grow  fhorter  till  they  degenerate  to 
fhrubs  and  buflies,  then  you  meet  with  low  vines  bearing 
a  red  and  a  blue  berry,  and  laftly  a  fort  of  grafs  called 
winter  grafs  mixed  with  the  mofs. 

Having  afcended  the  fteepeft  precipice,  you  come  to  what 
is  called  the  plain,  where  the  afcent  becomes  gentle  and 
eafy.  This  plain  is  compofed  of  rocks,  covered  with  win- 
ter grafs  and  mofs,  and  looks  like  the  furface  of  a  dry  pafture 
or  common.  In  fome  openings  between  the  rocks  you 
meet  with  water,  in  others  dry  gravel.  The  plain  is  an 
irregular  figure,  its  area  uncertain,  but  from  its  eaftern 
edge  to  the  foot  of  the  fugar-loaf,  is  upwards  of  a  mile; 
on  the  weftern  fide  it  extends  farther.  The  fugar-loaf  is  a 
pyramidal  heap  of  loofe  grey  rocks,  not  lefs  than  three  hun- 
dred feet  in  perpendicular  height,  but  the  afcent  is  not  io 
difficult  as  the  precipice  below  the  plain.  From  this  fum- 
mit in  clear  weather  is  a  noble  view,  extending  to  the  ocean 
on  the  foQth-eaft;  to  the  highlands  on  the  wefl  and  north- 
weft,  which  feparate  the  waters  of  Connefticut  river  from 
thofe  of  lake  Champlain  and  St.  Laurence;  on  the  fouth  it 
extends  to  Winipifeogee  lake,  and  the  highlands  fouthward 
of  Pemigewaffet  river.. 


46  DESCRIPTION  of  the 

It  happened  unfortunately  for  our  company,  that  a  thick 
cloud  covered  the  mountain  almoft  the  whole  time  that 
they  were  on  it,  fo  that  fome  of  theinftruments  which,  with 
much  labor  they  had  carried  up,  were  ufelefs.  In  the  ba- 
rometer the  mercury  ranged  at  22.6  inches,  in  44  de- 
grees of  heat  by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  It  was  our  in- 
tention to  have  placed  one  of  each  of  thefe  inftruments  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountain,  at  the  fame  time  that  others  were 
carried  to  the  top ;  but  they  were  unhappily  broken  in  the 
courfe  of  our  journey,  and  the  barometer  which  was  carried 
to  the  fummit,  had  fufFered  lb  much  agitation  that  an  allow- 
ance was  neceflary  to  be  made  in  calculating  the  height  of 
the  mountain,  which  our  ingenious  companion,  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Cutler,  of  Ipfwich,  eftimates  in  round  numbers  at  5500 
feet  above  the  meadow,  the  meadow  being  3500  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  fea,  and  this  feems  to  be  as  low  an  eftima- 
tion  as  can  be  admitted.  We  intended  to  have  made  a  ge- 
ometrical menfuration  of  the  altitude,  but  in  one  place 
where  we  attempted  it,  we  could  not  obtain  a  bafe  of  fuf- 
ficient  length,  and  in  another,  where  this  convenience  was 
removed,  we  were  prevented  by  the  almoft  continual  ob- 
fcurations  of  the  mountains  by  clouds. 

On  every  fide  of  thefe  mountains  are  many  long  wind- 
ing gullies,  beginning  at  the  precipice  below  the  plain  and 
deepening  in  the  defcent;  they  are  from  one  hundred  to  one 
thouiand  feet  deep,  and  perhaps  more.  In  winter,  the  fnow 
driving  with  the  north-weft  winds  over  the  tops  of  the 
mountains,  is  lodged  in  thefe  gullies,  and  forms  a  compact 
body  which  is  not  eafily  diffolved  by  the  vernal  fun.  It 
is  obferved  to  lie  longer  on  the  fouth,  than  on  the  north- 
weft  fides;  which  is  the  cafe  with  moft  other  hills  in  this 
part  of  the  country.  In  1 774  fome  men  who  were  at  work 
on  a  road  under  the  eaftern  fide  of  the  mountain,  afcendcd 
to  the  fummit  on  the  6th  of  June,  and  upon  the  fouth  fide 
found  a  body  of  fnow  thirteen  feet  deep,  and  fo  hard  as  to 

bear 


WHITE    MOUNTAINS.  47 

bear  them.  The  man  from  whom  I  ha^'  this  account,  and 
who  had  the  dire£lion  of  the  work,  afcended  the  mountain 
on  the  19th  of  June,  with  fome  of  the  fame  party,  and  in 
the  fame  fpot  the  fnovv  was  five  feet  deep.  On  the  2  2d 
of  July  this  year,  we  were  aflured  by  perfons  who  hvc 
within  plain  view  of  the  mountains,  on  the  fouth  fide,  at 
the  diftance  of  fixteen  miles,  that  the  fnow  had  not  been 
gone  more  than  ten  days.  We  were  alfo  credibly  inform- 
ed that  two  men,  who  attempted  to  afcend  the  mountain 
the  firll  week  of  September  laft  year,  found  the  bald  top 
fo  covered  with  fnow  and  ice,  then  newly  made,  that  they 
could  not  gain  the  fummit ;  but  this  does  not  happen  every 
year  fo  foon,  for  the  mountain  has  been  afcended  fo  late  as 
the  firft  week  in  Odober,  v^'hen  no  fnow  was  upon  it;  and 
fometimes  the  firft  fnows  that  come  diiTolve  before  the 
winter  fets  in;  but  generally  the  mountains  begin  to  be 
covered  with  fnow  and  ice,  either  in  the  latter  part  of  Sep- 
tember, or  the  beginning  of  Otftober,  and  it  never  wholly 
leaves  them  till  ]uly.  During  this  period  of  nine  or  ten 
months,  they  exhibit  more  or  lefs  of  that  bright  appearance, 
from  which  they  are  denominated  ivhite.  In  the  fpring 
when  the  fnow  is  partly  diffolved,  they  appear  of  a  pale 
blue  ftreaked  with  white;  and  after  it  is  wholly  gone,  at  the 
diftance  of  forty  or  fixty  miles,  they  are  altogether  of  a 
pale  blue  inclining  to  the  colour  of  thefky;  while  viewed 
at  the  diftance  of  only  ten  miles,  they  are  of  the  grey  co- 
lour of  the  rock  inclining  to  brown.  Thele  changes  are 
obferved  by  people  who  live  within  conftant  view  of  them, 
and  from  thefe  fadls  and  obfervations  It  may  juftly  be  con- 
cluded that  the  whitenefs  of  them  is  to  be  afcribed  wholly 
to  the  Inow  and  ice  and  not  to  any  other  white  fubftance, 
for  in  reality  there  is  none.  There  are  indeed  in  the  fum- 
mer  months  fome  ftreaks  which  appear  brighter  than  other 
parts,  but  thefe,  when  viev^ied  through  a  telefcope,  I  have 
plainly  difcerned  to  be  the  enlightened  edges  or  fides  of 
the  long  deep  gullies,  and  the  dark  parts  the  ihaded  fides 


48  DESCRIPTION  of  the 

of  them  ;  and  in  the  courfe  of  a  day  thcfe  fpots  may  be  feen 
to  vary  according  to  the  pofition  of  the  fun. 

It  may  not  be  amifs  to  query  here,  if  fo  great  a  quan- 
tity of  fnow  is  accumulated  and  remains  on  thele  moun- 
tains, may  it  not  be  fuppofed  to  add  a  keennefs  to  the 
winds  which  blow  over  them  ?  And  how  many  more  moun- 
tains may  there  be  toward  the  north  and  weft,  whofe  hoary 
fummits  contain  the  like  or  greater  bodies  of  fnow  and  ice, 
fome  of  Vv'hich,  at  the  remoteft  regions,  may  remain  un- 
diftblved  through  the  year  ?  May  we  not  then  afcribe  the 
piercing  cold  of  our  north-weft  winds  to  the  infinite  ranges 
of  frozen  mountains,  rather  than  to  the  lakes  and  forefts  ? 

Thefe  immenfe  heights  which  I  have  been  defcribing, 
being  copioufly  repleniflied  with  water,  exhibit  a  variety 
of  beautiful  cafcades,  fome  of  which  fall  in  a  perpendicu- 
lar fheet  or  fpout,  others  are  winding  and  narrow,  others 
fpread  on  the  level  iurface  of  fome  wide  rock  and  then 
gufti  in  catarads  over  its  edge.  A  romantic  imagination 
may  find  full  gratification  amidft  thefe  rugged  fcenes,  if 
its  ardor  be  not  checked  by  the  fatigue  of  the  approach. 
Three  of  the  largeft  rivers  in  New-England  receive  a  great 
part  of  their  waters  from  this  region.  Amonoofuck  and 
Ifrael  rivers,  two  principal  branches  of  Connedrcut,  fall 
from  the  weftern  fide  of  the  mountains,  Peabody  river  and 
another  branch  of  Amarifcogin  from  the  north-eaftern  fide, 
and  almoft  the  whole  of  Saco  defcends  from  the  fouthern 
fide.  The  declivities  being  very  fteep  caufe  this  latter 
river  to  rife  very  fuddenly  in  a  time  of  rain,  and  as  fud- 
denly  to  fubfide. 

On  the  weftern  part  of  thefe  mountains  is  a  pafs  which 
in  the  narroweft  place  meafures  but  twenty  two  feet  be- 
tween two  perpendicular  rocks.  Here  a  road  is  conftrud- 
ing  with  great  labor  and  expence,  which  is  the  fliorteft 
rout  to  the  upper  Cohofs  on  illonnedicut  river,  and  to  that 
part  of  Canada  which  borders  on  the  river  St.  Francis.  At 
the  height  of  this  narrow  pafs  the  river  Saco  takes  its  rife. 

A  brook 


WHITE   MOUNTAINS.  49 

A  brook  defcends  from  the  mountain,  and  meanders 
through  a  meadow  which  was  formerly  a  beaver-pond, 
and  is  furrounded  by  fteep,  and  on  one  fide,  perpendicular 
rocks — a  ftrikingly  pidturefque  fcene  !  the  rivulet  glides 
along  the  weftern  fide  of  the  defile,  (the  eaftern  being 
formed  into  a  road)  and  tributary  ftreams  augment  its 
waters,  one  of  which  is  called  the  Flume,  from  the  near 
refemblance  it  bears  to  the  flume  ot  a  mill.  The  pafs  be- 
tween the  mountains  widens  as  you  defcend  ;  but  for  eight 
or  ten  miles  they  are  fo  near  as  only  to  leave  room  for  the 
river  and  its  intervals.  In  the  courfe  of  this  defcent  you 
fee  at  immenfe  heights,  and  in  fpots  perfectly  inacceffible, 
feveral  rocks,  fome  of  a  whitifh  and  fome  of  a  reddifli  hue, 
whofe  faces  are  poliflied  by  the  continual  trickling  of  wa- 
ter over  them.  Thefe,  when  incrufted  with  ice,  being 
open  to  the  fouth  and  weft,  are  capable  in  the  night  of  re- 
flecting the  moon  and  ftar-beams  to  the  wondering  tra- 
veller, buried  in  the  dark  valley  below;  and  thefe  are  fuf- 
ficient,  by  the  help  ot  imagination,  to  give  rife  to .  the 
fidlion  of  carbuncles. 

We  found  no  ftones  of  any  higher  quality  than  flint* ; 
no  limeftone,  though  we  tried  the  moft  likely  with  aqua 
fortis.  It  is  faid  there  is  a  part  of  the  mountain  where  the 
magnetic  needle  refufes  to  traverfe  ;  this  may  contain  rock 
ore,  but  our  guide  could  not  find  the  place.  It  is  alfo  faid 
that  a  mineral,  fuppofed  to  be  lead  ore,  has  been  difcover- 
ed  on  the  eaftern  fide.  One  of  the  fprings  which  we  met 
with  in  our  afcent  on  that  fide  afi^orded  a  thick  frothy  fjum. 
and  a  faponaceous  tafte.  All  fearches  for  fubterranean 
treafures  in  thefe  mountains  have  as  yet  proved  fruitlefs. 
The  moft  certain  riches  which  they  yield  are  the  frefliets 
which  bring  down  the  foil  to  the  intervals  below,  and  form 
a  fine  mould,  producing  corn,  grain  and  herbage  in  the 
moft  luxuriant  plenty. 

.  G  Defcription 

'  Some  fpecimens  of  rock-cliryftal  have  been  found  lately  by  other  porfon?,  but  we  Jid  not 
hear  of  it  till  after  our  return. 


L   so   ] 


N°  IV. 

Defcription  of  a  remarkable  Rock  and  Cascade,  near  ths 

ivejiern  fide  of  the  Toughiogeny  riijer,  a  quarter  of  a 

mile  from  Crawford'' s  ferry  ■>  and  about  tnuel've  miles  from 

U  niou-To'wn,  in  Fayette  county.,   in  the  fate  of  Penn— 

fylvama.. 

BY    THO.    HUTCH  INS. 

f ''4  ^Tu  T^  HIS  cafcade  is  occafioncd  by  a  rock  of  a  fe- 
3l  micircular  forna,  the  chord  of  which,  from 
one  extreme  end  of  the  arch  to  the  other,  is  nearly  one 
hundred  yards  ;  the  arch  or  circular  part  is  extenfive,  and 
upwards  of  twenty  feet  in  height,  exhibiting  a  grand  and 
romantic  appearance.  This  very  curious  produdtion  is 
compofed  of  ftonc  of  variegated  colours,  and  a  fpecies  of 
marble  beautifully  chequered  with  veins  running  in  dif- 
ferent directions,  prefcnting  on  a  clofe  infpedion  a  faint 
refemblance  of  a  variety  of  mathematical  figures  of  diffe- 
rent angles  and  magnitudes.  The  operations  of  nature 
in  this  ftrudlure  feems  to  be  exceedingly  '.miform  and  ma- 
ieflic  ;  the  layers  or  rows  of  ftone  of  which  it  is  compofed 
are  of  various  lengths  and  thicknefles,  more  refembling  the 
effefts  of  art  than  nature.  A  flat  thin  ftone  from  eight  to 
ten  inches  thick,  about  twenty  feet  wide,  forms  the  upper 
part  of  this  amphitheatre,  over  v/hich  the  ftream  precipi- 
tates. The  whole  front  of  this  rock  is  made  up  from  top 
to  bottom,  as  well  as  from  one  extremity  of  the  arch  to 
the  other,  of  a  regular  fucceffion,  principally,  of  limeftone, 
ftrata  over  ftrata,  and  each  ftratum  or  row,  projedling  ia 
an  horizontal  dlredion  a  little  further  out  than  its  bafe,  un- 
til it  terminates  into  one  entire  flat,  thin,  extenfive  piece, 
as  already  mentioned;  and  which  jets  out  at  right  angles 

or 


On    HYGROMETERS.  51 

or  in  a  parallel  line  with  the  bottom,  over  which  it  im- 
pends fifteen  or  twenty  feet,  and  that  without  columns  or 
even  a  fingle  pillar  for  its  fupport.  This  circumftance, 
together  with  the  grand  circular  walk  between  the  front 
of  the  rock  and  the  fheet  of  water  falling  from  the  fum- 
mit,  exhibits  fo  noble  and  fingular  an  appearance,  that  a 
fpedator  cannot  behold  it  without  admiration  and  delight. 


N°  V. 

Letter  to  Mr.  Nairne,  of  London. 

Pajfy,  7iear  Paris,  Noi/.  13th,    17S0. 
SIR, 

f/fs/iTst  THE  qualities  hitherto  fought  in  a  hygrome- 
A  ter,  or  inftrument  to  difcover  the  degrees  of 
moifture  and  drynefs  in  the  air,  feem  to  have  been,  an 
aptitude  to  receive  humidity  readily  from  a  moift  air,  and 
to  part  with  it  as  readily  to  a  dry  air.  Different  fubltances 
have  been  found  to  poflefs  more  or  lefs  of  this  quality; 
but  when  we  fhall  have  found  the  fubftance  that  has  it  in 
the  greateft  perfedion,  there  will  ftill  remain  fome  uncer- 
tainty in  the  conclufions  to  be  drawn  from  the  degree 
fhown  by  the  inftrument,  arifing  from  the  adual  ftate  of 
the  inftrument  itfelf  as  to  heat  and  cold.  Thus,  if  two 
bottles  or  vefl^els  of  glafs  or  metal  being  filled,  the  one  with 
cold  and  the  other  with  hot  water,  are  brought  into  a  room, 
the  moifture  of  the  air  in  the  room  will  attach  itfelf  in 
quantities  to  the  furface  erf  the  cold  veffel,  while  if  you 
ailually  wet  the  furface  of  the  hot  veflel,  the  moifture  will 
immediately  quit  it,  and  be  abforbed  by  the  fame  air. 
And  thus  in  a  fudden  change  of  the  air  from  cold  to  warm, 
the  inftrument  remaining  longer  cold  may  condenfe  and 
abforb  more  moifture,  and  mark  the  air  as  having  become 

G  2  more 


53  On    hygrometers^ 

more  humid  than  it  is  in  reality,  and  the  contrary  in  a. 
change  trom  warm  to  cold. 

But  it  fuch  a  fuddenly  changing  inftrument  could  be 
freed  from  thefe  imperfedions,  yet  when  the  defign  is  to 
difcover  the  different  degrees  of  humidity  in  the  air  of  dif- 
ferent countries,  I  apprehend  the  quick  fenfibility  of  the 
inftrument  to  be  rather  a  difadvantage ;  fmce,  to  draw  the 
defired  conclufions  from  it,  a  conftant  and  frequent  obfer- 
vation  day  and  night  in  each  country  will  be  neceffary  for 
a  year  or  years,  and  the  mean  of  each  different  fet  of  ob- 
fervatlons  is  to  be  found  and  determined.  After  all  which 
fome  uncertainty  will  remain  refpeding  the  different  de- 
grees of  exadlitude  with  whicfi  different  perfons  may  have 
made  and  taken  notes  of  their  obfervations. 

For  thefe  reafons,  I  apprehend  that  a  fubftance  which, 
though  capable  of  being  diftended  by  moifture  and  con- 
traded  by  drynefs,  is  fo  flow  in  receiving  and  parting  with 
its  humidity  that  the  frequent  changes  in  the  atmolphere 
have  not  time  to  affed  it  fenfibly,  and  which  therefore 
fhould  gradually  take  nearly  the  medium  of  all  thofe 
changes  and  preferve  it  conftantly,  would  be  the  moft  pro- 
per fubftance  of  which  to  make  fuch  an 'hygrometer. 

Such  an  inftrument,  you,  my  dear  fir,  though  without 
intending  it,  have  made  for  me  ;  and  I,  without  defiring 
or  expeding  it,  have  received  from  you.  It  is  therefore 
with  propriety  that  I  addrefs  to  you  the  following  account 
of  it ;  and  the  more,  as  you  have  both  a  head  to  contrive 
and  a  hand  to  execute  the  means  of  perfeding  it.  And  I 
do  this  with  greater  pleafure,  as  it  affords  me  the  oppor- 
tunity of  renewing  that  antient  correfpondence  and  ac- 
quaintance with  you,  which  to  me  was  always  fo  pleafing 
and  io  inftrudive. 

You  may  poffibly  remember,  that  in  or  about  the  year 
1758,  you  made  for  me  a  fet  of  artificial  magnets,  fix  in 
number,  each  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  half  an  inch 
broad,  and  cue  eiohth  of  an  inch  thick.     Thefe,  with  two 

pieces 


On    hygrometers.  53 

pieces  of  foft  iron,  which  together  equalled  one  of  the 
magnets,  were  inclofed  in  a  little  box  of  mahogany  wood, 
the  grain  of  which  ran  with,  and  not  acrofs,  the  length  of 
the  box  ;  and  the  box  was  doled  by  a  little  fliutter  of  the 
fame  wood,  the  grain  of  which  ran  acrofs  the  box  ;  and 
the  ends  of  this  fliutting  piece  were  bevelled  fo  as  to  fit  and 
Aide  in  a  kind  of  dovetail  groove  when  the  box  was  to  be 
fliut  or  opened. 

I  had  been  of  opinion  that  good  mahogany  wood  was 
not  affeifled  by  moifture  (o  as  to  change  its  dimeniions, 
and  that  it  was  always  to  be  found  as  the  tools  of  the 
workman  left  it.  Indeed  the  difference  at  different  times 
in  the  fame  country,  is  fo  fmall  as  to  be  fcarcely  in  a  com- 
mon way  obfervable.  Hence  the  box  which  was  made  fo 
as  to  allow  fuflicient  room  for  the  magnets  to  Aide  out  and 
in  freely,  and,  when  in,  aiforded  them  fo  much  play  that 
by  fliaking  the  box  one  could  make  them  ffrike  the  op- 
pofite  fides  alternately,  continued  in  the  fame  ftate  all  the 
time  I  remained  in  England,  which  was  four  years,  with- 
out any  apparent  alteration.  I  left  England  in  Auguft 
1  762,  and  arrived  at  Philadelphia  in  OtSober  the  fame 
year.  In  a  few  weeks  afier  my  arrival,  being  defirousof 
fhowing  your  magnets  to  a  philofophical  friend,  I  found 
them  fo  tight  in  the  box,  that  it  was  with  difHculty  I  got 
them  out ;  and  conftantly  during  the  two  years  I  remain- 
ed there,  viz.  till  November  1764,  this  difficulty  of  get- 
ting them  out  and  in  continued.  The  little  fhutter  too, 
as  wood  does  not  fhrink  length  ways  of  the  grain,  was 
found  too  long  to  enter  its  grooves,  and  not  being  ufed, 
was  millaid  and  loft  ;  and  I  afterwards  had  another  made 
that  fitted. 

In  December  1 764  I  returned  to  England,  and  after  fome 
time  I  obferved  that  my  box  was  become  full  big  enough 
for  my  magnets,  and  too  wide  for  my  new  fliutter;  which 
was  fo  much  too  fliort  for  its  grooves,  that  it  was  apt  to 

fall 


54  On    hygrometers. 

fall  out;  and  to  make  it  keep  in,  I  lengthened  it  by  adding 
to  each  end  a  little  coat  of  fealing-wax. 

I  continued  in  England  more  than  ten  years,  and  during 
all  that  time  after  the  firR  change,  I  perceived  no  alteration. 
The  magnets  had  the  fame  freedom  in  their  box,  and  the 
little  fliutter  continued  with  the  added  fealing-wax  to  fit 
its  grooves,  till  fome  weeks  after  my  fecond  return  to  A- 
merica. 

As  I  could  not  imagine  any  other  caufe  for  this  change 
of  dimenfions  in  the  box,  when  in  the  different  countries, 
I  concluded,  firft  generally  that  the  air  of  England  was 
moifter  than  that  of  America.  And  this  1  fuppofed  an  ef- 
fe£l  of  its  being  an  ifland,  where  every  wind  that  blew 
muft  neceffarily  pafs  over  fome  fea  before  it  arrived,  and 
of  courfe  lick  up  fome  vapour.  I  afterwards  indeed  doubt- 
ed whether  it  might  be  juft  only  fo  far  as  related  to  the  city 
of  London,  where  I  refided ;  becaufe  there  are  many  caufes 
of  moifture  in  the  city  air,  which  do  not  exift  to  the  fame 
degree  in  the  country  ;  fuch  as  the  brewers  and  dyers 
boiling  caldrons,  and  the  great  number  of  pots  and  teaket- 
tles continually  on  the  fire,  fending  fourth  abundance  of 
vapour;  and  alfo  the  number  of  animals  who  by  their 
breath  continually  increafe  it;  to  which  may  be  added, 
that  even  the  vaft  quantity  of  fea  coals  burnt  there,  do  in 
kindling  difcharge  a  great  deal  of  moifture. 

When  I  was  in  England,  the  laft  time,  you  alfo  made  for 
me  a  little  achromatic  pocket  telefcope,  the  body  was  brafs, 
and  it  had  a  round  cafe,  (1  think  of  thin  wood)  covered 
with  fliaa,rin.  All  the  while  I  remained  in  England, 
though  poflibly  there  might  be  fome  fmall  changes  in  the 
dimenfions  of  this  cafe,  I  neither  perceived  nor  fufpeded 
any.  There  was  always  comfortable  room  for  the  tele- 
fcope to  flip  in  and  out.  But  foon  after  I  arrived  in  Ame- 
rica, which  was  in  May  i  775,  the  cafe  became  too  fmall 
for  the  inftrument,  it  was  with  much  difficulty  and  vari- 
ous contrivances  that  I  got  it  out,  and  I  could  never  after 

get 


On    HYGROMETERS.  55 

get  it  in  again,  during  my  ftay  there,  which  was  eighteen 
months.  I  brought  it  with  me  to  Europe,  but  left  the  cafe 
as  ufelefs,  imagining  that  I  fhould  find  the  continental  air 
of  France  as  dry  as  that  of  Pennfylvania,  where  my  mag- 
net box  hadalfo  returned  a  fecond  time  to  its  narrownefs, 
and  pinched  the  pieces,  as  heretofore,  obliging  me  too,  to- 
fcrape  the  fealing-wax  off  the  ends  of  the  fhutter. 

I  had  not  been  long  in  France,  before  I  was  furprlfed  to 
find,  that  my  box  was  become  as  large  as  it  had  always  been 
in  England,  the  magnets  entered  and  came  out  with  the  fame 
freedom,  and,  when  in,  I  could  rattle  them  againft  its  fides ; 
this  has  continued  to  be  the  cafe  without  fenfible  variati- 
on. My  habitation  is  out  of  Paris  diftant  almofl  a  league, 
fo  that  the  moift  air  of  the  city  cannot  befuppofed  to  have 
much  eiTe(it  upon  the  box.  1  am  on  a  high  dry  hill  in  a 
free  air  as  likely  to  be  dry  as  any  air  in  France.  Whence 
it  feems  probable  that  the  air  of  England  in  general  may 
as  well  as  that  of  London,  be  moifter  than  the  air  of  Ame- 
rica, fince  that  ot  France  is  fo,  and  in  a  part  fo  diftant  from, 
the  fca. 

The  greater  drynefs  of  the  air  in  America  appears  from 
fome  other  obfervations.  The  cabinet  work  formerly  feat 
us  from  London,  which  confifted  in  thin  plates  of  fine 
wood  glued  upon  fir,  never  would  ftand  with  us,  the  van- 
eering,  as  thofe  plates  are  called,  would  get  loofe  and  come 
off;  both  woods  fhrinking,  and  their  grains  often  croffmg, 
they  were  forever  cracking  and  flying.  And  in  my  elec- 
trical experiments  there,  it  was  remarkable,  that  a  maho- 
gany table  on  which  my  jars  ftood  under  the  prime  con- 
duftor  to  be  charged,  would  often  be  fo  dry,  particularly 
when  the  wind  had  been  fome  time  at  north-weft  which 
with  us  is  a  very  drying  wind,  as  to  ifolate  the  jars,  and 
prevent  their  being  charged  till  I  had  formed  a  communi- 
cation between  their  coatings  and  the  earth.  I  had  a  like 
table  in  London  which  I  ufed  for  the  fame  purpofe  all  the 
time  I  refided  there;  but  it  was  never  fo  dry  as  to  refufe- 
conducing  the  eledricity..  Now 


^6  On    hygrometers. 

Now  what  I  would  beg  leave  to  recommend  to  you,  is, 
that  you  would  recoiled;,  if  you  can,  the  fpecies  of  mahoga- 
ny of  which  you  made  my  box,  for  you  know  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  difference  in  woods  that  go  under  that  name ;  or 
if  that  cannot  be,  that  you  would  take  a  number  of  pieces 
of  the  clofeft  and  fineft  grained  mahogany  that  you  can 
meet  with,  plane  them  to  the  thinnefs  of  about  a  line,  and 
the  width  of  about  two  inches  acrofs  the  grain,  and  fix 
each  of  the  pieces  in  fome  inftrument  that  you  can  con- 
trive, which  will  permit  them  to  contract  and  dilate,  and 
will  fhow,  in  fenfible  degrees,  by  a  moveable  hand  upon 
a  marked  fcale,  the  otherwife  lefs  fenfible  quantities  of  fuch 
contra£lion  and  dilatation.  If  thefe  inftruments  are  all 
kept  in  the  fame  place  while  making,  and  are  graduated 
together  while  fubje(5l  to  the  fame  degrees  of  moiflure  or 
drynefs,  I  apprehend  you  will  have  fo  many  comparable 
hygrometers,  which  being  fent  into  different  countries, 
and  continued  there  for  fome  time,  will  find  and  Ihovw 
there  the  mean  of  the  different  drynefs  and  moifture  of  the 
air  of  thofe  countries,  and  that  with  much  lefs  trouble  than 
by  any  hygrometer  hitherto  in  ufe. 

With  great  efleem, 

I  am,  dear  fir, 

Your  mofi:  obedient, 

And  moft  humble  fervant, 

B.  FRANKLIN. 


Defcriptlon 


[    57    ] 


N°  VI. 


Defcriptmi  of  a  neiv  Stove  for  burning  of  PitcoaU  and 
confuming  all  its  Smoke. 


BY    DR.    B.    FRANKLIN. 


Read  Janua- 
ry 18,  I   "' 


786:  npO WARDS  the  end  of  the  laft  century  an 
X     ingenious  French  philofopher,  whofe  name 
I  am  forry  I  cannot  recoiled:,  exhibited  an  experiment  to 
Ihow  that  very  offenfive  things  might  be  burnt  in  the 
middle  of  a  chamber,  fuch  as  woollen  rags,  feathers,  &c. 
without  creating  the  leafl:  fmoke  or  fmell.     The 
machine  in  which  the  experiment  was  made,  if  I  pj,^„j."' 
remember  right,  was  of  this  form,  made  of  plate 
iron.     Some  clear  burning  charcoals  were  put  into  the 
opening  of  the  fhort  tube  A,  and  fupported  there  by  the 
grate  B.     The  air  as  foon  as  the  tubes  grew  warm  would 
afcend  in  the  longer  leg  C  and  go  out  at  D,  confequently 
air  mufl:  enter  at  A  defcending  to  B.     In  this  courfe  it  mufl 
be  heated  by  the  burning  coals  through  which  it  pafl'ed, 
and  rife  more  forcibly  in  the  longer  tube  in  proportion  to 
its  degree  of  heat  or  rarefaction,  and  length  of  that  tube. 
For  fuch  a  machine  is  a  kind  of  inverted  fyphon ;  and  as 
the  greater  weight  of  water  in  the  longer  leg  of  a  common 
fyphon  in  defcending  is  accompanied  by  an  afcent  of  the 
fame  fluid  in  the  fhorter ;  fo,  in  this  inverted  fyphon,  the 
greater  quantity  of  levity  of  air  in  the  longer  leg,  in  rifing 
is  accompanied  by  the  defcent  of  air  in  the  fhorter.     The 
things  to  be  burned  being  laid  on  the  hot  coals  at  A,  the 
fmoke  muft  defcend  through  thofe  coals,  be  converted  into 
flame,  which,  after  deftroying  the  ofi^enfive  fmell,  came 
out  at  the  end  of  the  longer  tube  as  mere  heated  air. 

H  Whoever 


58  DESCRIPTION  of  a 

Whoever  would  repeat  this  experiment  with  fuccefs, 
mufl:  take  care  that  the  partA  ,  B,  of  the  Ihort  tube  be  quite 
full  of  burning  coals,  fo  that  no  part  of  the  fmoke  may 
defcend  and  pafs  by  them  without  going  through  them, 
and  being  converted  into  flame  ;  and  that  the  longer  tube 
be  fo  heated  as  that  the  current  of  afcending  hot  air  ia 
eftablifhed  in  it  before  the  things  to  be  burnt  are  laid  on 
the  coals  ;  otherwife  there  will  be  a  difappointment. 

It  does  not  appear  either  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  or  Philofophical  Tranfa£lions  of  the  Englifli 
Royal  Society,  that  any  improvement  was  ever  made  of 
this  ingenious  experiment,  by  applying  it  to  ufeful  pur- 
pofes.  But  there  is  a  German  book,  entitled  Vulcaniis 
Famulans^  by  Joh.  George  Leutmann,  P.  D.  printed  atWir- 
temberg  in  1723,  which  defcribes,  among  a  great  variety 
of  other  floves  for  warming  rooms,  one  which  feems  to 
have  been  formed  on  the  fame  principle,  and  probably 
from  the  hint  thereby  given,  though  the  French  experi- 
ment is  not  mentioned.  This  book  being  fcarce,  I  have 
tranflated  the  chapter  defcribing  the  ftove,  viz. 

"  Vulcanus  Famulans,  by  John  George  Leutmann,  P.  D. . 
"  Wirtemberg,   1723. 

"CHAP.     VII. 

"  On  a  ftove,  which  draws  downwards. 

"  Here  follows  the  defcription  of  a  fort  of  ftove,  which 
"  can  eafily  be  removed  and  again  replaced  at  pleafure. 
"  This  drives  the  fire  down  under  itfelf,  and  gives  no 
"  fmoke,  but  however  a  very  unwholefome  vapour. 

"  In  the  figure,  A  is  an  iron  veflel  like  a  fun-- 
.Plate  II.     «  j^gi    jj-^  diameter  at  the  top  about  twelve  inches. 

Figure  20.  '  X  _  ' 

"  at  the  bottom  near  the  grate  about  five  inches;. 
"  its  height  twelve  inches.     This  is  fet  on  the  barrel  C, 
"  which  is  ten  inches  diameter  and  two  feet  long,  clofed 

"  at 


N  E  W     S  T  O  V  E.  59 

"*'  at  each  end  E  E.  From  one  end  rifes  a  pipe  or  flue 
"  about  tour  inches  diameter,  on  which  other  pieces  of  pipe 
*'  are  fet,  which  are  gradually  contradted  to  D,  where  the 
"  opening  is  but  about  two  inches.  Thofe  pipes  mufl:  to- 
"  gether  be  at  leaft  four  feet  high.  B  is  an  iron  grate. 
"  F  F  are  iron  handles  guarded  with  wood,  by  which  the 
"  ftove  is  to  be  lifted  and  moved.  It  ftands  on  three  legs. 
*'  Care  mufl:  be  taken  to  flop  well  all  the  joints,  that  no 
"  fmokc  may  leak  through. 

"  When  this  ftove  is  to  be  ufed,  it  muft  firft  be  carried 
*'  into  the  kitchen  and  placed  in  the  chimney  near  the  fire. 
"  There  burning  wood  muft  be  laid  and  left  upon  its  grate 
"  till  the  barrel  C  is  warm,  and  the  fmoke  no  longer  rifes 
*'  at  A,  but  defcends  towards  C.  Then  it  is  to  be  carried 
*'  into  the  room  which  it  is  to  warm.  When  once  the 
*'  barrel  C  is  warm,  frefti  wood  may  be  thrown  into  the 
"  veffel  A  as  often  as  one  pleafes,  the  flame  defcends  and 
*'  without  fmoke,  which  is  fo  confumed  that  only  a  va- 
*'  pour  palTes  out  at  D. 

"  As  this  vapour  is  unwholefome,  and  afl'ects  the  head, 
*'  one  may  be  freed  from  it,  by  fixing  in  the  wall  of  the 
*'  room  an  inverted  funnel,  fuch  as  people  ufe  to  hang  over 
*'  lamps,  through  which  their  fmoke  goes  out  as  throut^h 
*'  a  chimney.  This  funnel  carries  out  all  the  vapour  cle- 
*♦  verly,  fo  that  one  finds  no  inconvenience  from  it,  even 
*'  though  the  opening  D  be  placed  a  fpan  below  the  mouth 
"  of  the  faid  funnel  G.  The  neck  of  the  funnel  is  better 
♦'  when  made  gradually  bending,  than  if  turned  in  a  right 
"  angle. 

"  The  caufe  of  the  draft  downwards  in  the  ftove  is  the 
"  preflure  of  the  outward  air,  which  falling  into  the  veffel 
"  A  in  a  column  of  twelve  inches  diameter,  finds  only 
"  a  refifting  paflage  at  the  grate  B,  of  five  inches,  and 
"  one  at  D,  of  two  inches,  \\  hich  are  much  too  weak 
"  to  drive  it  back  again  ;  befides,  A  ftands  much  higher 
*'  than  B,  and  fo  the  preflTure  on  it  is  greater  and  more 

H  2  "  forcible. 


6o  DESCRIPTION  of  a 

«  forcible,  and  beats  down  the  flame  to  that  part  where 
"  it  finds  the  leaft  refiftance.  Carrying  the  machine  firfl: 
"  to  the  kitchen  fire  for  preparation,  is  on  this  account, 
"  that  in  the  beginning  the  fire  and  fmoke  naturally  afcend, 
"  till  the  air  in  the  dole  barrel  C  is  made  thinner  by  the 
"  warmth.  When  that  veflel  is  heated,  the  air  in  it  is 
"  rarefied,  and  then  all  the  fmoke  and  fire  defcends 
"  under  it. 

"  The  wood  fhould  be  throughly  dry,  and  cut  into 
"  pieces  five  or  fix  inches  long,  to  fit  it  for  being  thrown 
"  into  the  funnel  A."     Thus  far  the  German  book. 

It  appears  to  me  by  Mr.  Leutmann's  explanation  of 
the  operation  of  this  machine,  that  he  did  not  underftand 
the  principles  of  it,  whence  I  conclude  he  was  not  the  in- 
ventor of  it;  and  by  the  defcription  of  it,  wherein  the 
opening  at  A  is  made  fo  large,  and  the  pipe  E,  D,  fo  fhort, 
I  am  perfuaded  he  never  made  nor  faw  the  experiment,  for 
the  firft  ought  to  be  much  fmaller  and  the  laft  much  higher, 
or  it  hardly  will  fucceed.  The  carrying  it  in  the  kitchen, 
too,  every  time  the  fire  fhould  happen  to  be  out,  muft  be  fo 
troublefome,  that  it  is  not  likely  ever  to  have  been  in  prac- 
tice, and  probably  has  never  been  fliown  but  as  a  philofo- 
phical  experiment.  The  funnel  for  conveying  the  va- 
pour out  of  the  room,  would  befides  have  been  uncertain 
in  its  operation,  as  a  wind  blowing  againft  its  mouth  would 
drive  the  vapour  back. 

The  ftove  I  am  about  to  defcribe,  was  alfo  formed  on 
the  idea  given  by  the  French  experiment,  and  completely 
carried  into  execution  before  I  had  any  knowledge  of  the 
German  invention;  which  I  wonder  fhould  remain  fo  many 
years  in  a  country  where  men  are  fo  ingenious  in  the  ma- 
nagement of  fire,  without  receiving  long  fince  the  im- 
provements I  have  given  it. 

Description 


N  E  W      S  T  O  V  E.  6e 

Description  of  the  Parts. 

A,  the  bottom  plate  which   Hes  flat  upon  the 
hearth,  with  its  partitions    1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  that   plg^^J^j 
arc  call:  with  it,  and  a  groove  Z  Z,  in  which  are  to 
Aide,  the  bottom  edges  of  the  fmall  plates  Y,  Y,  figure  1 2 ; 
which  plates  meeting  at  X  clofe  the  front. 

B  I,  figure  3,  is  the  cover  plate  fhowing  its  under  fide, 
with  the  grooves  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  to  receive  the  top  edges 
of  the  partitions  that  are  fixed  to  the  bottom  plate.  It 
fhows  alfo  the  grate  W  W,  the  bars  of  which  are  caft  in 
the  plate,  and  a  groove  V  V,  which  comes  right  over  the 
groove  Z  Z,  figure  2,  receiving  the  upper  edges  of  the 
fmall  fliding  plates  Y  Y,  figure  i  2. 

B  2,  figure  4,  {hows  the  upper  fide  of  the  fame  plate, 
with  a  fquare  impreffion  or  groove  for  receiving  the  bot- 
tom mouldings  T  T  T  T  of  the  three  fided  box  C,  figure 
5,  which  is  caft  in  one  piece. 

D,  figure  6,  its  cover,  fliowingits  under  fide  with  grooves 
to  receive  the  upper  edges  S  S  S  of  the  fides  of  C,  figure 
5,  alfo  a  groove  R,  R,  which  when  the  cover  is  put  on 
Gomes  right  over  another  Qj^in  C,  figure  5,  between 
which  it  is  to  Aide. 

E,  figure  7,  the  front  plate  of  the  box. 

P,  a  hole  three  inches  diameter  through  the  cover  D,  fi- 
gure 6,  over  which  hole  ftands  the  vafe  F,  figure  8,  which 
has  a  correfponding  hole  two  inches  diameter  through  its 
bottom. 

The  top  of  the  vafe  opens  at  O,  O,  O,  figure  8,  and  turns, 
back  upon  a  hinge  behind  when  coals  are, to  be  put  in;  the 
vafe  has  a  grate  within  at  N  N  of  caft  iron  H,  figure  9,  and 
ahole  in  the  top  one  and  a  half  inches  diameter  to  admit  air, 
and  to  receive  the  ornamental  brafs  guilt  flame  M,  figure 
10,  which  ftands  in  that  hole  andj  being  itfelf  hollow  and 
open,  fufFers  air  to  pafs  through  it  to  the  fire. 

G,  figure  II,  is  a  drawer  of  plate  iron,  that  flips  in  be- 
tween in  the  partitions   2  and  3,  figure  2,  to  receive  the 

falling 


52  DESCRIPTION  of  a 

falling  afhes.     It  is  concealed  when  the  fmall  Aiding  plates 
Y  Y,  figure  12,  are  (hut  together. 

I,  I,  I,  I,  figure  8,  is  a  niche  built  of  brick  in  the  chim- 
ney and  plaftered.  It  clofes  the  chimney  over  the  vafe,  but 
leaves  two  funnels  one  in  each  corner  communicating  with 
the  bottom  box  K  K,  figure  2. 

Dimensions  of  the  Parts. 

Feet.     In. 

.    Front  of  the  bottom  box,     ^        -         -  20 

Height  of  its  partitions,  -  -  °     4t 

Length  of  N°   i,  2,  3  and  4,  each,         -  13 

Length  of  N°  5  and  6,  each         -         -         08^ 
Breadth  of  the  paflage  between  N  °  2  and  3,0     6 
Breadth  of  the  other  paflages  each,  -  o     34- 

Breadth  of  the  grate,  -  -  o     6i 

Length  of  ditto,  -  -  -  08 

Bottom  moulding  of  box  C,  fquare,         -  10 

Height  of  the  fides  of  ditto,         -         -  04 

Length  of  the  back  fide,  -  -  010 

Length  of  the  right  and  left  fides,  each,       -     o     9  i 
Length  of  the  front  plate  E,  where  longeft,      o   1 1 
The  cover  D,  fquare,  -  -  012 

Hole  in  ditto,  diameter,  -  -03 

Sliding  plates  Y  Y  their  length,  each,       -10 

—their  breadth,  each,      -       04^ 

Drawer  G,  its  length,         -         -  -  10 

•^breadth,  -         -         -         o     5t 

depth,         _         _         -  04 

— — depth  of  its  further  end,  only,     o      i 

Grate  H  in  the  vafe,  its  diameter  to  the  extre- 
mity of  its  knobs,  -  -  -  o     5I. 
Thicknefs  of  the  bars  at  top,         -         -         o     04. 

at  bottom,  lefs,       -       00 

Depth  of  the  bars  at  the  top,         -         -         o     oj 
Height  of  the  vafe,  -  -  -16 

Diameter  of  the  opening  O,  O,  in  the  clear,     o     8 

Diameter 


NEW      STOVE.  631 

Fcot.     In. 

Diameter  of  the  air-hole  at  top,        -         -       o     i  i.. 
of  the  flame  hole  at  bottom,       -02 

To  fix  this  Machine. 

Spread  mortar  on  the  hearth  to  bed  the  bottom  plate  A,, 
then  lay  that  plate,  level,  equally  diftant  from  each  jamb, 
and  projecting  out  as  far  as  you  think  proper.  Then  put- 
ing  Ibrae  Windfor  loam  in  the  grooves  of  the  cover  B,  lay 
that  on:  Trying  the  Aiding  plates  Y  Y,  to  fee  if  they  move 
freely  in  the  groves  Z  Z,  V  V,  defigned  for  them. 

Then  begin  to  build  the  niche,  obferving  to  leave  the. 
fquare  corners  of  the  chimney  unfilled;  for  they  are  to  be 
funnels.  And  obferve  alfo  to  leave  a  free  open  communi- 
cation between  the  palTages  at  K  K,  and  the  bottom  of 
thofe  funnels,  and  mind  to  clofe  the  chimney  above  the 
top  of  the  niche,  that  no  air  may  pafs  up  that  way.  The 
concave  back  of  the  niche  will  reft  on  the  circular  iron  par- 
tition I  A  4,  figure  2,  then  with  a  little  loam  put  on  the, 
box  C  over  the  grate,  the  open  fide  of  the  box  in  front. 

Then,  with  loam  in  three  of  its  grooves,  the  groove  R  R 
being  left  clean,  and  brought  directly  over  the  groove  QJ^ 
in  the  box,  put  on  the  cover  D,  trying  the  front  plate  E, 
to  fee  if  it  Aides  freely  in  thofe  grooves. 

Laftly,  fet  on  the  vafe,  which  has  fmall  holes  in  the 
moulding  of  its  bottom  to  receive  two  iron  pins  that  rife 
out  of  the  plate  D  at  I  I,  for  the  better  keeping  it  fteady. 

Then  putting  in  the  grate  H,  which  refts  on  its  three 
knobs  H  H  H  againft  the  infide  of  the  vafe,  and  fiipping 
the  drawer  into  its  place ;  the  machine  is  fit  for  ufe. 

To  tife  it. 

Let  the  firft  fire  be  made  after  eight  in  the  evening  or 
before  eight  in  the  morning,  for  at  thofe  times  and  be- 
tween thofe  hours  all  night,  there  is  ufually  a  draft  up  a 
chimney,  though  it  has  long  been  without  fire  ;  but  be- 
tween thofe  hours  in  the  day  there  is  often  in  a  cold  chim- 
ney. 


64  DESCRIPTION  of  a 

ney  a  draft  downwards,  when  if  you  attempt  to  kindle  a 
lire,  the  fmoke  will  come  into  the  room. 

But  to  be  certain  of  your  proper  time,  hold  a  flame  over 
the  air-hole  at  the  top.  If  the  flame  is  drawn  ftrongly 
down  for  a  continuance,  without  whiffling,  you  may  be- 
gin to  kindle  a  fire. 

Firft  put  in  a  few  charcoals  on  the  grate  H. 

Lay  fome  fmall  flicks  on  the  charcoals. 

Lay  fome  pieces  of  paper  on  the  flicks, 

Kindle  the  paper  with  a  candle. 

Then  fliut  down  the  top,  and  the  air  will  pafs  down 
through  the  air-hole,  blow  the  flame  of  the  paper  down 
through  the  flicks,  kindle  them,  and  their  flame  pafling 
lower,  kindles  the  charcoal. 

When  the  charcoal  is  well  kindled,  lay  on  It  the  fea- 
coals,  obferving  not  to  choak  the  fire  by  putting  on  too 
much  at  firft. 

The  flame  defcending  through  the  hole  in  the  bottom 
of  the  vafe,  and  that  in  plate  D  into  the  box  C  paffes  down 
farther  through  the  grate  W  W  in  plate  B  i,  then  pafles 
horizontally  towards  the  back  of  the  chimney  ;  there  di- 
viding, and  turning  to  the  right  and  left,  one  part  of  it 
pafles  round  the  far  end  of  the  partition  2,  then  coming 
forward  it  turns  round  the  near  end  of  partition  i,  then 
moving  backward  it  arrives  at  the  opening  into  the  bottom 
of  one  of  the  upright  corner  funnels  behind  the  niche, 
through  which  it  afcends  into  the  chimney,  thus  heating 
that  half  of  the  box  and  that  fide  of  the  niche.  The  other 
part  of  the  divided  flame  pafles  round  the  far  end  of  par- 
tition 3,  round  the  near  end  of  partition  4,  and  fo  into 
and  up  the  other  corner  funnel,  thus  heating  the  other 
half  of  the  box,  and  the  other  fide  of  t-he  niche.  The  vafe 
itfelf,  and  the  box  C  will  alfo  be  very  hot,  and  the  air 
furrounding  them  being  heated,  and  rifing,  as  it  cannot 
get  into  the  chimney,  it  fpreads  in  the  room,  colder  air 

fucceeding 


N  E  W      S  T  O  V  E.  6s 

fucceeding  is  warmed  in  its  turn,  rifes  and  fpreads,  till  by 
the  continual  circulation  the  whole  is  warmed. 

If  you  fliould  have  occafion  to  make  your  firfl.  fire  at 
hours  not  fo  convenient  as  thofe  above  mentioned,  and 
when  the  chimney  does  not  draw,  do  not  begin  it  in  the 
vafe,  but  in  one  or  more  of  the  paflages  of  the  lower  plate, 
firft  covering  the  mouth  of  the  vafe.  After  the  chimney 
has  drawn  a  while  with  the  fire  thus  low,  and  begins  to 
be  a  little  warm,  you  may  clofe  thofe  pafl~ages  and  l-indle 
another  fire  in  the  box  C,  leaving  its  Aiding  ihutter  a  little 
open ;  and  when  you  find  after  fome  time  that  the  chim- 
ney being  warmed  draws  forcibly,  you  may  fhut  that  paf- 
fage,  open  your  vafe,  and  kindle  your  fire  there,  as  above 
direded.  The  chimney  well  warmed  by  the  firft  day's 
fire  will  continue  to  draw  conftantly  all  winter,  if  fires  a^e 
made  daily. 

You  will,  in  the  management  of  your  fire,  have  need  of 
the  following  implements  : 

A  pair  of  fmall  light  tongs,  twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
long,  plate  II,  figure  13. 

A  light  poker  about  the  fame  length  with  a  flat  broad 
point,  figure  14. 

A  rake  to  draw  aflies  out  of  the  paflages  of  the  low- 
er plate,  where  the  lighter  kind  efcaping  the  afli-box 
will  gather  by  degrees,  and  perhaps  once  in  a  week  or  ten 
days  require  being  removed,  figure  15. 

And  a  fork  with  its  prongs  wide  enough  to  flip  on  the 
neck  of  the  vafe  cover,  in  order  to  raife  and  open  it  when 
hot,  to  put  in  frcfh  coals,  figure  16. 

In  the  management  of  this  ftove  there  are  certain  pre- 
cautions to  be  obferved,  at  firft  with  attention,  till  they 
become  habitual.  To  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  fmoke, 
fee  that  the  grate  H  be  clear  before  you  begin  to  light  a 
frefh  fire.  If  you  find  it  clogged  with  cinders  and  afties, 
turn  it  up  with  your  tongs  and  let  them  fall  upon  the  grate 
below }  the  alhes  will  go  through  it,  and  the  cinders  may 

I  be 


ee  DESCRIPTION  OF  A 

be  raked  off  and  returned  into  the  vafe  when  you  would 
burn  them.  Then  fee  that  all  the  Aiding  plates  are  in  their 
places  and  clofe  fhut,  that  no  air  may  enter  the  ftove  but 
through  the  round  opening  at  the  top  of  the  vafe.  And 
to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  dufl  from  the  afhes,  let  the 
afh-drawer  be  taken  out  of  the  room  to  be  emptied  ;  and 
when  you  rake  the  paffages,  do  it  when  the  draft  of  the 
air  is  ilrong  inwards,  and  put  the  afhes  carefully  into  the 
alh-box,  that  remaining  in  its  place. 

If  being  about  to  go  abroad,  you  would  prevent  your 
fire  burning  in  your  abfence,  you  may  do  it  by  taking  the 
brafs  flame  from  the  top  of  the  vafe,  and  covering  the 
paflage  with  a  round  tin  plate,  which  will  prevent  the  en- 
try of  more  air  than  barely  fufficient  to  keep  a  few  of  the 
coals  alive.  When  you  return,  though  fome  hours  abfent, 
by  taking  off  the  tin  plate  and  admitting  the  air,  your  fire 
will  foon  be  recovered. 

The  effed  of  this  machine,  well  managed,  is  to  bura 
not  only  the  coals,  but  all  the  fmoke  of  the  coals,  fo  that 
while  the  fire  is  burning,  if  you  go  out  and  obferve  the 
top  of  your  chimney,  you  will  fee  no  fmoke  iffuing,  nor 
any  thing  but  clear  warm  air,  which  as  ufual  makes  the 
bodies  feen  through  it  appear  waving. 

But  let  none  imagine  from  this,  that  it  may  be  a  cure 
fiar  bad  or  fmoky  chimneys,  much  lefs,  that  as  it  burns 
the  fmoke  it  may  be  ufed  in  a  room  that  has  no  chimney. 
'Tiy  by  the  help  of  a  good  chimney,  the  higher  the  better, 
that  it  produces  its  effeft;  and  though  a  flue  of  plate  iron 
fufficiently  high  might  be  raifed  in  a  very  lofly  room.,  the 
management  to  prevent  all  difagreeable  vapour  would  be 
too  nice  for  common  practice,  and  fmall  errors  would  have 
unpleafmg  confequences. 

It  is  certain  that  clean  iron  yields  no  ofFenfive  fmell 
when  heated.  Whatever  of  that  kind  you  perceive,  where 
there  are  iron  floves,  proceeds  therefore  from  fome  foul- 
nefs  burning  or  fuming  on  their  furface.     They  fhould 

therefore 


•  NEW     STOVE,  C; 

therefore  never  be  fpit  upon,  or  greafed,  nor  fhould  any 
duft  be  fuffered  to  lie  upon  them.  But  as  the  greateft  care 
will  not  always  prevent  thefe  things,  it  is  well  once  a 
week  to  wafh  the  ftove  with  foap  lees  and  a  brufh,  rlnfing 
it  with  clean  water. 

The  Advantages  of  this  Stove. 

1.  The  chimney  does  not  grow  foul,  nor  ever  need 
fvveeping;  for  as  no  fmoke  enters  it,  no  foot  can  form  in  it. 

2.  The  air  heated  over  common  fires  inftantly  quits  the 
room  and  goes  up  the  chimney  with  the  fmoke;  but 
in  the  ftove,  it  is  obliged  to  deicend  in  liame  and  pals 
through  the  long  winding  horizontal  palTages,  communi- 
cating its  heat  to  a  body  of  iron  plate,  which  having  thus 
time  to  receive  the  heat,  communicates  the  fame  to  the  air 
of  the  room,  and  thereby  warms  it  to  a  greater  degree. 

3.  The  whole  of  the  fuel  is  confume  d  by  beingturned 
into  flame,  and  you  have  the  benefit  of  its  heat,  whereas 
in  common  chimneys  a  great  part  goes  away  in  fmoke 
which  you  fee  as  It  rifes,  but  it  affords  you  no  rays  of 
warmth.  One  may  obtain  fome  notion  of  the  quantity  of 
fuel  thus  wafted  in  fmoke,  by  refle£ling  on  the  quantity 
of  foot  that  a  few  weeks  firing  will  lodge  agalnlt  the  fides 
of  the  chimney,  and  yet  this  is  formed  only  of  thofe  par- 
ticles of  the  column  of  fmoke  that  happen  to  touch  the  fides 
in  its  afcent.  How  much  more  muft  have  palled  ofl"  in 
the  air  ?  And  we  know  that  this  foot  is  ftill  fuel  ;  for  it 
will  burn  and  flame  as  fuch,  and  when  hard  caked  toge- 
ther Is  indeed  very  like  and  almoft  as  folid  as  the  coal  it 
proceeds  from.  Thedefirudlion  of  your  fuel  goes  on  near- 
ly in  the  fame  quantity  whether  in  fmoke  or  in  flame :  but 
there  is  no  comparifon  in  the  difference  of  heat  <.'iven. 
Obferve  when  frelh  coals  are  firft  put  on  your  fire,  what  a 
body  of  fmoke  arifes.  This  fmoke  is  for  a  long  time  too 
cold  to  take  flame.  If  you  then  plunge  a  burning  candle 
into  it,  the  candle  inftead  of  inflaming  the  fmoke  will  in- 

1  2  flantly 


68  DESCRIPTION  OF  A 

ftantly  be  itfelf  extinguifhed.  Smoke  muft  have  a  ccrtafre 
degree  of  heat  to  be  inflammable.  As  foon  as  it  has  ac- 
quired that  degree,  the  approach  of  a  candle  will  inflame 
the  whole  body,  and  you  will  be  very  fenfible  of  the  dif- 
ference of  the  heat  it  gives.  A  ftill  eafier  experiment  may 
be  made  with  the  candle  itfelf.  Hold  your  hand  near  the- 
fide  of  its  flame,  and  obferve  the  heat  it  gives  ;  then  blow 
it  out,  the  hand  remaining  in  the  fame  place,  and  obferve 
what  heat  may  be  given  by  the  fmoke  that  rifes  from  the 
flill  burning  fnufF.  You  will  find  it  very  little.  And  yet 
that  fmoke  has  in  it  the  fubftance  of  fo  much  flame,  and 
will  inftantly  produce  it,  if  you  hold  another  candle  above 
it  fo  as  to  kindle  it.  Now  the  fmoke  from  the  frefh  coals 
laid  on  this  ftove,  inflead  of  afcending  and  leaving  the  fire 
while  too  cold  to  burn,  being  obliged  to  defcend  through 
the  burning  coals,  receives  among  them  that  degree  of 
heat  which  converts  it  into  flame,  and  the  heat  of  that 
flame  is  communicated  to  the  air  of  the  room,  as  above 
explained. 

4.  The  flame  from  the  frefh  coals  laid  on  in  this  ftove,, 
defcending  through  the  coals  already  ignited,  preferves. 
them  long  from  confuming,  and  continues  them  in  the 
ftate  of  red  coals  as  long  as  the  flame  continues  that  fur- 
rounds  them,  by  which  means  the  fires  made  in  this  ftove. 
are  of  much  longer  duration  than  in  any  other,  and  fewer 
coals  are  therefore  neceftary  for  a  day.  This  is  a  very 
material  advantage  indeed.  That  flame  fliould  be  a  kind 
of  pickle,  to  preferve  burning  coals  from  confuming,  may 
feem  a  paradox  to  many,  and  very  unlikely  to  be  true,  as 
it  appeared  to  me  the  firft  time  I  obferved  the  fad.  I  muft 
therefore  relate  the  circumftances,  and  fliall  mention  an 
eafy  experiment,  by  which  my  reader  may  be  in  poflefllon 
of  every  thing  neceftary  to  the  underllanding  of  it.  In 
the  firft  trial  1  made  of  this  kind  of  ftove,  v,  hich  was  con- 
flru£led  of  thin  plate  iron,  I  had  inftead  of  the  vafe  a  kind 
of  inverted  pyramid  like  a  mill-hopper ;  and  fearing  at 

firft 


N  E  W      S  T  O  V  E.  6g 

•firft  that  the  fmall  grate  contained  in  it  mi^ht  be  clogged 
by  cynders,  and  the  palTage  of  the  flame  fometimes  ob- 
truded, I  ordered  a  little  door  near  the  grate,  by  means 
of  which  I  might  on  occafion  clear  it.  Though  after  the 
ftove  was  made,  and  before  I  tried  it,  I  began  to  think 
this  precaution  fuperfluous,  from  an  imagination,  that  the 
flame  being  contracted  in  the  narrow  part  where  the  grate 
was  placed,  would  be  more  powerful  in  confuming  what 
it  fhould  there  meet  with,  and  that  any  cynders  between 
or  near  the  bars  would  be  prefently  deftroyed  and  the  paf- 
fage  opened.  After  the  ftove  was  fixed  and  in  adion,  I 
had  a  pleafure  now  and  then  in  opening  that  door  a  little, 
to  fee  through  the  crevice  how  the  flame  defcended  among 
the  red  coals,  and  obferving  once  a  fingle  coal  lodged  on 
the  bars  in  the  middle  of  the  focus,  a  fancy  took  me  to 
obferve  by  my  watch  in  how  fhort  a  time  it  would  be  con- 
fumed.  I  looked  at  it  long  without  perceiving  it  to  be  at 
all  diminifhed,  which  furprifed  me  greatly.  At  length  it 
occurred  to  me,  that  I  and  many  others  had  feen  the  fame 
thing  thoufands  of  times,  in  the  confervation  of  the  red 
coal  formed  in  the  fnuff  of  a  burning  candle,  which  while 
cnvelloped  in  flame,  and  thereby  prevented  from  the  con- 
tad  of  palling  air,  is  long  continued  and  augments  inftead 
of  diminilhing,  fo  that  we  are  often  obliged  to  remove  it 
by  the  fnuffers,  or  bend  it  out  of  the  flame  into  the  air, 
where  it  confumes  prefently  to  aflies.  I  then  fuppofed 
that  to  confume  a  body  by  fire,  paffing  air  was  necelTary 
to  receive  and  carry  off  the  feparated  panicles  of  the  body; 
and  that  the  air  paffing  in  the  flame  of  my  ftove,  and  in 
the  flame  of  a  candle,  being  already  faturated  with  fuch 
particles,  could  not  receive  more,  and  therefore  left  the 
coal  undiminilhed  as  long  as  the  outward  air  was  prevent- 
ed from  coming  to  it  by  the  furrounding  flame,  which 
kept  it  in  a  fituation  fomewhat  like  that  of  charcoal  in  a 
well  luted  crucible,  which,  though  long  kept  in  a  ilrong. 
fire,  comes  out  unconfumed. 

Am 


yo  DESCRIPTION  OF  A 

An  eafy  experiment  will  fatisfy  any  one  of  this  con- 
ferving  power  of  flame  envelloping  red  coal.  Take  a  fmall 
Hick  of  deal  or  other  wood  the  fize  of  a  goofe  quill,  and 
hold  it  horizontally  and  fteadily  in  the  flame  of  the  can- 
dle above  the  wick,  without  touching  it,  but  in  the  body 
of  the  flame.  The  wood  will  firft  be  inflamed,  and  burn 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  flame  of  the  candle,  perhaps  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  When  the  flame  of  the  wood  goes  out, 
it  will  leave  a  red  coal  at  the  end  of  the  flick,  part  of  which 
will  be  in  the  flame  of  the  candle  and  part  out  in  the  air. 
In  a  minute  or  two  you  will  perceive  the  coal  in  the  air 
diminifh  gradually,  fo  as  to  form  a  neck;  while  the  part 
in  the  flame  continues  of  its  firft  fize,  and  at  length  the 
neck  being  quite  confumed  it  drops  ofi^;  and  by  rolling  it 
between  your  fingers  when  extinguifhed  you  will  find  it 
ftill  a  folid  coal. 

However,  as  one  cannot  be  always  putting  on  frefli  fuel 
in  this  ftove  to  furnifh  a  continual  flame  as  is  done  in  a 
candle,  the  air  in  the  intervals  of  time  gets  at  the  red  coals 
and  confumes  them.  Yet  the  confervation  while  it  lafted, 
fo  much  delayed  the  confumption  of  the  coals,  that  two 
fires,  one  made  in  the  morning,  and  the  other  in  the  af- 
ternoon, each  made  by  only  a  hattuU  of  coals,  were  fufiici- 
ent  to  keep  my  writing  room,  about  fixteen  feet  fquare  and 
ten  high,  warm  a  whole  day.  The  fire  kindled  at  feven  in 
the  morning  would  burn  till  noon  ;  and  all  the  iron  of 
the  machine  with  the  walls  of  the  niche  being  thereby 
heated,  the  room  kept  warm  till  evening,  w^hen  another 
fmaller  fire  kindled  kept  it  warm  till  midnight. 

Infteadof  the  Aiding  plate  E,  which  flints  the  front  of  the 
box  C,  I  Ibmetimes  ufed  another  which  had  a  pane  of  glafs, 
or,  which  isbetter,  of  Mufcovy  talc,  that  the  flamemightbe 
feen  delcending  from  the  bottom  of  the  vafe  and  pafling  in  a 
column  through  the  box  C,  into  the  cavities  of  the  bottom 
plate,  like  water  falling  from  a  funnel,  admirable  to  fuch 
as  are  not  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  machine,  and 
in  itfelf  a  pleafing  fpedacle.  Every 


N  E  \V      S  T  O  V  E.  71 

Every  utenfil,  however  properly  contrived  to  ferve  its 
purpoi'e,  requires  fome  practice  before  it  can  be  ufed  adroit- 
ly. Put  into  the  hands  of  a  man  for  the  firft  time,  a  gim- 
blct  or  a  hammer,  (very  fimple  inflruments)  and  tell  him 
the  ufe  of  them,  he  fhall  neither  bore  a  hole  or  drive  a  nail 
with  the  dexterity  or  fuccefs  of  another  who  has  been  a  little 
accuftorned  to  handle  them.  The  beginner  therefore  ia 
the  ufe  of  this  machine,  will  do  well  not  to  be  difcouraged 
with  little  accidents  that  may  arife  at  firft  from  his  want 
of  experience.  Being  fomewhat  complex,  it  requires  as 
already  faid  a  variety  of  attentions;  habit  will  render  them 
unneceflary.  And  the  ftudious  man  who  is  much  in  his 
chamber,  and  has  a  pleafure  in  managing  his  own  fire, 
will  foon  find  this  a  machine  moft  comfortable  and  delight- 
ful. To  others  who  leave  their  fires  to  the  care  of  ignorant 
fervants,  1  do  not  recommend  it.  They  v.'ill  with  diffi- 
culty acquire  the  knowledge  neceffary,  and  will  make  fre- 
quent blunders  that  will  fill  your  room  with  fmoke.  It 
is  therefore  by  no  means  fit  for  common  ufe  in  families. 
It  may  be  advifeable  to  begin  with  the  flaming  kind  of 
ftone  coal,  which  is  large,  and,  not  cakinc^  together,  is  not 
fo  apt  to  clo;^;  the  grate  After  fome  experience,  any  kind 
of  coal  may  be  ufed,  and  with  this  advantage,  that  no  fmell, 
even  from  the  moft  fulphurous  kind  can  come  into  your 
room,  the  current  of  air  being  conftantly  into  the  vafe, 
where  too  that  fmell  is  all  confumed. 

The  vafe  form  was  chofen  as  being  elegant  in  itfelf,  and 
very  proper  for  burning  of  coals :  Where  wood  is  the  ufual 
fuel,  and  muft  be  burnt  in  pieces  of  fome  length,  a  long 
fquare  cheft  maybefubftituted,  in  which  A  is  the  co- 
ver opening  by  a  hinge  behind,  B  the  grate,  C  the   pigj^'i, 
hearth  box  with  its  divifions  as  in  the  other,  D  the 
plan  of  the  cheft,  E  the  long  narrow  grate.      'I  his  1  have 
not  tried,  but  the  vafe  machine  was  compleated  in  1771,  and 
ufed  by  me  in  London  three  winters,  and  one  afterwards 
in  America,  much  to  my  fatisf a(ftion ;  and  I  have  not  yet 

tliought 


72  DESCRIPTION  of  a 

thought  of  any  improvement  it  may  be  capable  of,  though 
fuch  may  occur  to  others.  For  common  ufe,  while  in 
France,  I  have  contrived  another  grate  for  coals,  which  has 
in  part  the  fame  property  of  burning  the  fmolce  and  pre- 
ferving  the  red  coals  longer  by  the  flame,  though  not  fo 
completely,  as  in  the  vafe,  yet  fufficiently  to  be  very 
ufeful,  which  I  fhall  now  defcribe  as  follows. 

A,  is  a  round  grate,  one  foot  (French)  in  dia-  pj'^jf^'^jg 
iiieter,  and  eight  inches  deep  between  the  bars  and 
the  back;  the  fides  and  back  of  plate  iron;  the  fides  hav- 
ing holesof  half  an  inch  diameter  difl;ant3  or  4  inches  from 
each  other,  to  let  in  air  for  enlivening  the  fire.  The  back 
without  holes.  The  fides  do  not  meet  at  top  nor  at  bot- 
tom by  eight  inches:  that  fquare  is  filled  by  grates  of  fmall 
bars  croifing  front  to  back  to  let  in  air  below,  and  let  out 
the  fmoke  or  flame  above.  The  three  middle  bars  of  the 
front  grate  are  fixed,  the  upper  and  lower  may  be  taken 
out  and  put  in  at  pleafure,  when  hot,  with  a  pair  of  pincers. 
This  round  grate  turns  upon  an  axis,  fupported  by  the 
crotchet  B,  the  ftem  of  which  is  an  inverted  conical  tube 
five  inches  deep,  which  comes  on  as  many  inches  upon  a 
pin  that  fits  it,  and  which  is  fixed  upright  in  a  call  iron 
plate  D,  that  lies  upon  the  hearth;  in  the  middle  of  the  top 
and  bottom  grates  are  fixed  fmall  upright  pieces  E  E  about 
an  inch  high,  which  as  the  whole  is  turned  on  its  axis  flop 
it  when  the  grate  is  perpendicular.  Figure  19  is  another 
view  of  the  fame  machine. 

In  making  the  firfl:  fire  in  a  morning  with  this  grate, 
there  is  nothing  particular  to  be  obferved.  It  is  made  as 
in  other  grates,  the  coals  being  put  in  above,  after  taking 
out  the  upper  bar,  and  replacing  it  when  they  are  in.  The 
roiuid  figure  of  the  fire  when  thoroughly  kindled  is  agree- 
able, it  reprefents  the  great  giver  of  warmth  to  our  fyftem. 
As  it  burns  down  and  leaves  a  vacancy  above,  which  you 
■would  fill  with  frefh  coals,  the  upper  bar  is  to  be  taken 
out,  and  afterwards  replaced.     The  frefli  coals  while  the 

grate 


NEW     STOVE.  73 

■grate  continues  in  the  fame  pofition,  will  throw  up  as  ufaal 
a  body  of  thick  fmoke.     But  every  one  accuftomed  to  coal 
■fires  in  common  grates,  muft  have  obferved  that  pieces  of 
frefli  coal  ftuck  in  below  among  the  red  coals  have  their 
•fmoke  fo  heated  as  that  it  becomes  flame  as  faft  as  it  is 
produced,  which  flame  rifes  among  the  coals  and  enlivens 
the  appearance  of  the  fire.     Here  then  is  the  ufe  of  this 
fwivel  grate.     By  a  pufh  with  your  tongs  or  poker,  you 
turn  it  on  its  pin  till  it  faces  the  back  of  the  chimney,  then 
turn  it  over  on  its  axis  gently  till  it  again  faces  the  room, 
whereby  all  the  frefli  coals  will  be  found  under  the  live 
coals,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  fmoke  arifing  from  the 
frefli  coals  will  in  its  paflage  through  the  live  ones  be  heat- 
ed fo  as  to  be  converted  into  flame  :   Whence  you  have 
much  more  heat  from  them,  and  your  red  coals  are  lono^er 
preferved  from  confuming.     I  conceive  this  conftrudtion, 
though  not  fo  complete  a  confumer  of  all  the  fmoke  as  the 
vafe,  yet  to  be  fitter  for  common  ufe,  and  very  advanta- 
geous.    It  gives  too  a  full  fight  of  the  fire,  always  a  plea- 
fing  objedt,  which  we  have  not  in  the  other.     It  may  with 
a  touch  be  turned  more  or  lefs  from  any  one  of  the  com- 
pany that  defires  to  have  lefs  of  its  heat,  or  prefented  full 
to  one  juft  come  out  of  the  cold.     And  fupported  in  a  ho- 
rizontal pofition,  a  tea-kettle  may  be  boiled  on  it. 

The  author's  defcription  of  his  Pennfylvania  fire-place, 
firft  publiflied  in  1744,  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
workmen  in  Europe,  who  did  not,  it  feems,  well  compre- 
hend the  principles  of  that  machine,  it  was  much  dif- 
figured  in  their  imitations  of  it;  and  one  of  its  main  in- 
tentions, that  of  admitting  a  fuflScient  quantity  of  frefli 
air  warmed  in  entering  through  the  air-box,  nearly  de- 
feated, by  a  pretended  improvement,  in  leflening  its  paf- 
fages  to  make  more  room  for  coals  in  a  grate.  On  pre- 
tence of  fuch  improvements,  they  obtained  patents  for  the 
invention,  and  for  a  while  made  great  profit  by  the  fale, 
till  the  public  became  fenfible  of  that  dcfed,  in  the  ex- 

K  pedicd 


74  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

pe£led  operation.  If  the  fame  thing  fhould  be  attempted 
with  this  vafe  flove,  it  will  be  well  for  the  buyer  to  ex- 
amine thoroughly  fuch  pretended  improvements,  left,  be- 
ing the  mere  productions  of  ignorance,  they  diminifh  or 
defeat  the  advantages  of  the  machine,  and  produce  incon- 
venience and  difappointment. 

The  method  of  burning  fmoke,  by  obliging  it  to  defcend 
through  hot  coals,  may  be  of  great  ufe  in  heating  the 
walls  of  a  hot-houfe.  In  the  common  way,  the  horizon- 
tal paiTiiges  or  flues  that  are  made  to  go  and  return  in  thofe 
walls,  lole  a  great  deal  of  their  efFe£l  when  they  come  to 
be  foul  with  foot;  for  a  thick  blanket-like  lining  of  foot 
prevents  much  of  the  hot  air  from  touching  and  heating-: 
the  brick  work  in  its  pafTage,  fo  that  more  fire  muft  be 
made  as  the  flue  grows  fouler  :  But  by  burning  the  fmoke 
they  are  kept  always  clean.  The  fame  method  may  alfo 
be  of  great  advantage  to  thofe  bufinelTes  in  which  large 
coppers  or  caldrons  are  to  be  heated.. 

Written  at  Sea,   17S5. 


N°  VIL. 

A  Theory  of  Lightening  and  Thunder  Storms,  by  Andrew 
Oliver,  Efq.  of  Salem  in  the  State  of  Mafachufetts. 

^^''if;""'  ¥  '^  ^^^  been  generally,  and,  confidering  the  phe- 
J.  nomena  themfelves,  very  naturally  fuppofed, 
that  the  eleftric  charges  which  are  exhibited  in  repeated 
flalhes  of  lightening  during  a  thunder  ftorm,  are  previoufly 
accumulated  in  the  vapors  which  conftitute  the  cloud  ;  and 
that  thefe  vapors,  when  by  any  means  they  become  either 
over-charged  with  elei£lric  matter,  or  are  deprived  of  their 
^.  ,,*.:..,.«..  natural 


THUNDER     STORMS.  73 

natural  quantities  of  it*,  difcharge  their  furplufage  to,  or 
receive  the  neceflary  fuppHes  from,  either  the  earth  or  the 
neighbouring  clouds,  in  fuccelTive  explofions,  till  an  equi- 
librium is  reftored  between  them.  But  I  ihall  endeavour 
in  the  following  pages  to  prove,  that  thefe  charges  refide, 
not  in  the  cloud  or  vapors  of  which  it  confifls,  but  in  the 
air  which  fuftains  them  ;  and  that,  previous  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  cloud,  or  even  the  aicent  of  the  vapors 
of  which  it  is  formed.  Eut,  in  order  to  convey  my  ideas 
upon  this  fubje£t  with  perfpicuity,  I  fmd  it  neceffiiry  to 
introduce  them  with  a  quotation  from  dodor  Franklin''^ 
letters  on  electricity,  in  which  the  doctor  compares  water, 
■whether  in  its  natural  ftate,  or  rarefied  into  vapors,  to  a 
fponge ;  and  the  electric  fluid,  in  connedtion  w^th  it,  to 
water  appHed  to  the  fponge. 

"  When  a  fponge  (fays  he)  is  fomewhat  condenfed  by 
"  being  fqueezed  between  the  fingers,  it  will  not  receive 
"  and  retain  fo  much  water  as  when  it  is  in  its  more  loofe 
"  and  open  ftate.  If  more  fqueezed  and  condenfed,  fome 
"  of  the  water  will  come  out  of  its  inner  parts,  and  flow 
*'  on  the  furface.  If  the  preflure  of  the  fingers  be  intire- 
*'  ly  removed,  the  fponge  will  not  only  refume  what  was 
*'  lately  forced  out,  but  attract  an  additional  quantity.  As 
*'  the  fponge  in  its  rarer  ftate  will  naturally  attraft  and 
*'  abforb  more  water  ;  and  in  its  denfer  ftate  will  naturally 
"  attract  and  abforb  lej's  water  ;  we  may  call  the  quantity 
"  it  abforbs  in  either  ftate,  its  natural  quantity-,  the  ftate 
"  being  confidered." 

The  dotlor  then  fuppofes,  "  that  what  the  fponge  is  to 
"  water,  the  fame  is  water  to  the  eletlric  fluid  ; — that 
*'  when  a  portion  of  water  is  in  its  common  denfe  ftate, 
"  it  can  hold  no  more  elcttric  fluid  than  it  has  ;  if  any  be 
"  added  it  fpreads  upon  the  furface."  He  adds,  "  when 
*'  the  fame  portion  of  water  is  rarefied  into  vapor  and  forms 

K  2  "a  cloud, 

*  A  body  is  faid  to  be  clcflrically  charged,  whenever  it  h:.s  clUier  mari  or  Irfi  than  its  na- 
tural cjuantity  of  elciSlric  matter. 


76.  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

"  a  cloud,  it  is  then  capable  of  receiving  and  abforbing  a- 
"  much  greater  quantity,  as  there  is  room  for  each  parti— 
"  cle  to  have  an  eledric  atmofphere.  Thus  v^-ater  in  its 
"  rarefied  ftate,  or  in  the  form  of  a  cloud,  will  be  in  a 
"  negative  ftate  of  eleftricity ;  it  will  have  lefs  than  its 
"  natural  qriantlty-,  that  is,  lefs  than  it  is  naturally  capable 
*'  of  attradling  and  abforbing  in  that  ftate*." 

The  foregoing  paflages  I  have  copied  'verhathn  from 
that  celebrated  eled;rician,  as  I  purpole  in  the  courfeof  this, 
efl!ay  to  avail  myfelf  of  his  idea  of  the  fponge,  in  order  to 
illuftrate  a  dlff^erent  theory  of  thunder  clouds,  which  I  now 
beg  leave,  though  with  diffidence  of  my  own  judgment, 
and  v^ith  all  due  deference  to  that  of  fo  great  a  man,  to 
fubftitute  in  the  room  of  the  foregoing ;  which  I  muft  con- 
fefs  at  firft  fight  carries  great  appearance  of  probability 
with  it,  and  is  highly  corroborated  by  the  curious  and 
beautiful  experiment  the  doctor  made  with  the  lllver  cann,^ 
brafs  chain,  and  lock  of  cottonf . 

But  in  reading  dodor  Priejlley''%  hiftory  of  elecflricity, 
fome  thoughts  of  fignior  Beccar'ia  occurred,  which  fatisfi- 
ed  me  that  this  hypothefis,  however  ingenious  and  plau- 
fible,  was  infufficient  for  the  purpofe  of  accounting  for  the 
rife  and  phenomena  of  thunder  ftorms,  the  frequent  ex- 
tent and  violence  of  which  feem  to  require  a  more  general 
caufe  than  that  hinted  above,  to  fupply  them  with  fufficienc 
quantities  of  cledric  matter. 

"  Confidering  the  vaft  quantity  of  eletftric  fire  that  ap- 
"  pears  in  the  moft  fimple  thunder  ftorms  (fays  dodtor 
"  Prieftly  j)  fignior  Beccaria  thinks  it  impoflible  that  any 
"  cloud,  or  number  of  clouds,  fhould  ever  contain  it  all, 
"  fo  as  either  to  difcharge  or  receive  it..  Befides,  during 
"  the  progrefs  and  increafe  of  the  ftorm,  though  the  light- 
*'  ening  frequently  ftruck  to  the  earth,  the  fame  clouds 

"  were 


*  Franklin's  Letters,  page  119. 

\  Page  121. 

\  PHcftley's  Hiftoiy  of  Eleilricity,  page  325. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  77, 

"  were  the  next  moment  ready  to  make  a  ftill  greater  dif- 
"  charge,  and  his  apparatus  continued  to  be  as  much  af- 
"  fe£ted  as  ever.  The  clouds  muft  confcqucntly  have  re- 
"  cei'ued  at  one  place  the  moment  that  a  difcharge  was 
"  made  from  them  in  another." 

Signior  Beccaria  accounts  for  this  vaft  exhibition  of 
ele£tric  fire  from  a  thunder  cloud,  by  fuppofing  that  fomc 
parts  of  the  earth  may  become  more  highly  charged  with 
the  eleiftric  fluid  than  others,  and  that  great  quantities  of 
it  do  fometimes  rufhout  of  particular  parts,  and  rife  through 
the  air  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmofphere ;  other 
parts  of  the  earth  becoming  cafually  deftitute  of  their  na- 
tural quantity  of  the  fluid  at  the  fame  time,  and  ready  to 
receive  it  :  That  a  chain  of  clouds  nearly  contiguous,  or 
a  fmgle  cloud  extending  from  one  of  thefe  regions  to  an- 
other, in  an  oppofite  ftate,  might  ferve  as  a  conductor  or 
conduftors  to  reftore  the  eledlric  equilibrium  between  them, 
which  would  equally  caufe  thunder  and  lightening  in  both 
regions,  and  throughout  the  intermediate  clouds*.  Here 
dodlor  P;7^/t7Juftly  obferves,  that  "  the  greateft  diflicul- 
"  ty  attending  this  theory  of  the  origin  of  thunder  ftorms 
"  relates  to  the  colleBlon  and  infulation  of  eledric  matter 
"  within  the  body  of  the  earth."  With  regard  to  the  col- 
lection^ the  dodlor  obferves  that  his  author  "  has  nothing 
■  "  particularly  to  fay  :"  Nor  indeed  without  a  previous  in- 
fiilation  of  thofe  parts  of  the  earth  which  may  be  concern- 
ed in  the  produdlion  of  the  phenomena,  can  any  fuch  col- 
lection take  place.  Now  if  we  confider  that  in  order  to 
have  two  regions  of  the  earth  thus  infulated,  and  of  fuffi- 
cient  dimenfions,  one  to  fupply,  and  the  other  to  receive 
the  quantities  of  electric  fire  difcharged  during  one  thun- 
der itorm  of  any  extent  and  continuance,  the  parts  infu- 
lated mufi:  be  not  fuperficial  regions,  but  muft  reach  to  a 
confiderable  depth;  and  we  muft  fuppofe,  with  dodtor 
Prieftley,  "  that  the  eledlric  matter  which  forms  and  ani- 
"  mates  the  thunder  cloud,  iffues  from  places  far  below 

"  the 

»  Ibid. . 


78  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

"  the  furface  of  the  earth,  and  that  it  buries  itfelf  there*." 
But,  with  deference  to  the  judgment  of  that  unwearied 
friend  to  fcience,  I  apprehend  that  i'uch  an  infulation  is 
hardly  confiPcent  with  that  diftribution  of  condudlors, 
efpecially  of  water,  which  provident  nature  has  made 
through  all  parts  of  our  globe;  the  higheft  mountains  be- 
ing furnilhed  with  internal  ii^nngs  and  fountains,  and 
■watered  external/)'  by  rivulets,  which  derive  their  origin 
from  condenfmg  mills  or  melting  fnows  upon  their  lum- 
mits  :  While  the  furface  of  the  earth  in  general,  not  ex- 
cepting the  moft  fandy  deferts,  affords  fupplies  of  water 
to  thofe  who  will  be  at  the  pains  of  digging  for  it.  If  then 
the  vapors  which  conftitute  the  cloud  are,  of  themfelves, 
incapable  of  furnifhing  fuch  quantities  of  eledtric  matter  as 
are  neceffary  for  the  repeated  difcharges  in  a  fevere  thun- 
der ftorm,  as  fignior  Beccaria  thinks  they  are,  and  as  feems 
to  me  indubitable  ;  and  if  the  infulations  of  large  portions 
of  the  furface  or  exterior  parts  of  the  earth,  which  rre  ab- 
folutely  neceffary  to  fupport  Beccana\  hypothefis,  cannot 
take  place  ;  which,  how  they  can  in  our  terraqueous  mafs, 
is  difficult  to  conceive,  confiffently  with  the  hitherto  dif- 
covered  properties  of  the  eledric  fluid  :  We  muft  feek  for 
fome  other  fubflance  in  nature  which  may  be  capable  of 
affording  thofe  reiterated  fupplies,  of  that  powerful  element 
which  are  vifually  exhibited  in  ^  thunder  ftorm.  This  I 
prefume,  we  fhall  find  in  the  atmofphere  over  our  heads; 
not  in  the  'vapors  which  float  therein,  but  in  the  air  itfelf 
■which  fuftains  them. 

Air  is  by  eledricians  juftly  clafled  \\  1th  eleSiric  fubftan- 
ces,  as  it  jpoffetfes  the  fame  general  properties  in  common 
with  others  of  that  denomination,  particular  inftances  of 
which  may  occur  in  the  following  pages  ;  wherein  I  fhall 
endeavour  to  prove, 

I.  That  the  eledric  capacity  of  air  is  lefTened  by  con- 
denfation. 

II.  That  this  capacity  is  increafed  by  heat. 

Premifing 

*  FricJlley,  page  335. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  79 

Premlfing  that  by  nir  I  here  intend  that  fluid  In  its  com- 
mon comprcfled  ftate  with  us  near  the  furface  of  the  earth; 
and  by  its  /^Idclric  capacity.^  that  ftate  of  it  which  dilpofes 
it,  under  any  circumftances  whatever,  "  to  atlraft,  abforb 
and  retain,"  what  do£tor  Franklin  calls  its  natural  quantity .^ 
or  the  quantity  which  is  natural  to  it  in  that  {late. 

I.  I  fhall  endeavour  to  prove  that  the  elcciric  capacity 
of  air  is  leflened  by  condenfation. 

That  a  change  of  denfity  in  air  produces  alfo  a  change 
in  its  electric  capacity  (as  above  defmed),  follows  from  fome 
experiments  of  monfieur  de  Faye  and  dodlor  Priejlley.,  the 
former  of  whom  found,  upon  repeated  trials,  that  no  elec- 
tricity could  be  excited  by  the  friction  of  a  glafs  tube  in 
which  the  air  was  condenfed*.  The  doftor,  repeating  the 
experiments  with  fome  variation,  found,  that  when  one 
additional  atmofphere  was  forced  into  the  tube,  the  elec- 
tricity excited  by  rubbing  it  was  fcarcely  difcernable. 
Now,  though  the  efFedl  was  a  fufpenfion  of  the  operation 
of  the  excited  tube  'without^  the  caufe  was  evidently  the 
condenfed  ftate  of  the  air  "within ;  which  may  be  accounted 
for  if  we  conlider,  that  although  it  is  certain  from  many 
experiments  that  glafs  is  abfolutely  impermeable  to  the 
electric  fluid,  infomuch  that  it  cannot  force  its  way  through 
a  pane  of  glafs,  or  the  fides  of  a  phial,  without  breaking 
the  glafs,  as  was  the  cafe  in  thofe  fpontaneous  difcharges~ 
of  feveral  of  the  jars  in  the  eledlrical  battery  mentioned  by 
do€tor  FrieJilLyl ;  yet  it  is  as  certain,  that  this  impermea- 
bility of  the  glafs  to  the  fluid  itfelf,  is  no  obftrudion  to 
the  operation  of  that  repellent  power  upon  which  the  vi- 
fible  effedls  of  this  element  feem  principally  to  depend; 
which  power  undeniably  ails  from  one  flde  of  the  glafs, 
through  the  very  fubftance  of  it,  upon  the  fan-3  fluid  on 
the  other  fide,  provided  there  be  any  other  fubftance  on 
that  fide  capable  of  receiving  it  when  thus  repelled. 

This  is  the  cafe  in  the  LeyJen  experiment  in  every  form 
in  which  it  can  be  made;  the  charge  given  to  one  fide  of 

tliC 
*  Page  50.  t  Page  489, 


So  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

the  glafs,  repelling  and  throwing  off  an  equal  quantity  of 
the  eledric  fluid  from  the  oppofite  furface,  through  the 
non-eledric  coating  in  contact  with  it;  nor  can  any  charge 
be  given  to  either  fide  without  a  proportional  difcharge 
from  the  other.  In  like  manner,  when  an  uncoated  tube 
is  excited  by  fri£tion,  a  quantity  of  the  fluid,  equal  to  that 
which  is  excited  and  condenfed  upon  the  outer  furface,  is 
thrown  out  from  the  inner,  provided  there  is  any  fub- 
ftance  within  in  a  capacity  to  receive  and  abforb  it,  with- 
out which  no  excitation  can  take  place.  "  A  glafs  tube, 
"  out  of  which  the  air  is  exhaufted,  difcovers  no  figns  of 
*'  eledtricity  outwards*,"  there  being  no  fubftance  within 
capable  of  receiving  and  abforbing  the  fluid  from  the  in- 
ner furface,  which  though  repelled  from  it  inwards  dur- 
ing the  operation,  yet  returns  to  it  again  inftantly  upon  a 
cefl'ation  of  the  action  of  the  rubber  without.  But  upon 
a  readmifhon  of  air  the  excitation  is  eafy,  and  is  attended 
•with  the  ufual  effed:s.  Air  then,  which  is  the  only  fub- 
ftance admitted  (excepting  perhaps  a  few  ftraggling  va- 
pors which  float  in  it)  receives  and  abforbs  a  fufficient 
quantity  of  the  eledlric  fluid  from  the  inner  furface  to  per- 
mit an  excitation  of  the  tube  which  contains  it.  But  as 
we  have  feen  that  air,  when  condenfed  within,  prevents 
the  vifible  effedls  of  an  excitation,  equally  with  a  total  va- 
cuity, we  may  adopt  the  idea  of  doftor  Fratikiin,  ?}iutaiis 
mutandis^  and  conlcude  that  "  what  the  fponge  is  to  water 
*'  the  fame  is  air  to  the  ele£tric  fluid  :"  At  leaft  that  this  ca- 
pacity of  air  if  lelfcned  by  condenfation  in  a  manner,  not 
indeed  perfeftly  fimilar,  but,  fomewhat  analogous  to  that  in 
which  the  capacity  of  a  fponge  to  receive  and  retain  water 
is  leflened  by  compreflion.  Agreeably  to  which  idea,  the 
condenfed-air  within  the  tube,  having  its  eledlric  capacity 
filled  and  even  crowded  with  the  eledric  matter,  will  re- 
ceive none  from  the  inner  furface,  which,  on  the  contrary, 
is  thereby  prevented  from  being  forced  out  of  it,  without 

which 

f  Prieftley's  hiftory  of  cicifliicity,  page  550. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  8i 

which  none  can  be  forced  Into  or  condenfed  upon  the  out- 
er furfece,  fo  as  to  exhibit  any  figns  of  electricity;  as  ob- 
ferved  before, 

II.  I  fhall  endeavour  to  prove  that  the  eledric  cat^acity 
of  air  is  increafcd  by  heat.  *^-* 

This  aUb  appears  probable,  at  leaft,  from  the  above  cited 
experiments  of  do£tor  Prieftley  ;  for  after  the  air  in  his 
tube  had  had  this  capacity  fo  far  diminilhed  by  condenfa- 
tion  as  not  to  permit  an  excitation  without,  that  capacity, 
together  with  the  coniequent  excitability  of  the  tube,  was 
reftored  by  the  adion  of  heat  upon  the  included  air.  "  Re- 
"  peating  my  attempts  (fays  he)  to  excite  the  tube  above 
"  mentioned,  I  found  that,  after  very  hard  rubbing,  it  be- 
"  gan  to  ait  a  little,  and  that  its  virtue  increafed  with  the 
"  labour.  Thinking  it  might  be  the  warmth  which  pro- 
"  duced  this  efFetSt,  I  held  the  tube  to  the  fire  and  found 
"  that  when  it  was  pretty  hot,  it  would  adl  almoft  as  well 
*'  as  when  it  contained  no  more  than  its  ufual  quantity 
"  of  air*." 

In  page  ^^^^  dodlor  Priejlley  tells  us  that  fome  of  his 
eledlrical  friends  were  of  opinion,  "  that  the  reafon  why 
"  a  tube  with  condenfed  air  in  it  cannot  be  excited  is,  that 
"  the  denfe  air  within  prevents  the  eledric  fluid  from  be- 
*'  ing  forced  out  of  the  infide  of  the  tube,  without  which 
"  none  can  be  forced  into  the  outfide ;  and  that  heating 
"  the  tube  makes  the  air  within  lefs  eledlrical."  That  is, 
as  I  conceive  their  meaning,  puts  it  in  a  capacity  to  re- 
ceive and  abforb  more  of  the  eledlric  fluid  than  it  could 
other  wife  do  in  that  condenfed  ftate.  The  doctor  indeed 
queries  by  way  of  objeftion  to  the  foregoing  folution, — 
"  How  upon  this  principle  can  a  folid  flick  of  glafs  be  ex- 
"  cited  ?"  To  which  I  would  anfwer,  that  polhbly,  when 
a  folid  flick  of  glafs  is  excited,  as  much  of  the  eledtric  fluid 
may  be  drawn  out  of  one  fide  of  it  as  is  thrown  into,  or  con- 
denfed upon  the  other;  if  fo,  although  it  may  fhe.v  equal 
figns  of  electricity  on  both  fides,  yet  one  fide  will  be  in  a 

L  pofitive 

.  *  Page  551. 


\ 


82  T  H  Fi  O  -R  y     OF 

pofitlve,  the  other  in- a  negative  ftate  ;  when  it  will  ex- 
aftly  refemble  the  curious  ftone  called  the  tourmalin.,  by 
Ibme  lapis  eleSlricuSy  which  doctor  Pr'iejiley  fays  *  "  has 
*'  always,  at  the  fame  time.,  a  pofitive  and  a  negative  elec- 
*'  tricity  ;  one  of  its  fides  being  in  one  ftate,  and  the  other 
"  in  the  oppofite;"  which  does  not  depend  upon  the  ex- 
ternal form  "  of  the  ftone."  But  the  truth  of  this  foluti- 
on  muft  be  determined  by  future  experiments. 

That  the  eleftrical  ftate  of  the  air  is  liable  to  be  affefted 
by  heat,  is  further  evident  from  a  courfe  of  experiments 
which  were  made  by  the  abbe  Mazeas,  with  an  apparatus 
that  was  conftrufted  folely  with  a  view  of  determining  the 
eleftricity  of  the  atmofphere,  anno  1 753 1-  With  this  ap- 
paratus the  abbe  obferved,  that  from  the  i  yth  of  June,  when 
he  began  his  experiments,  the  eledtricity  of  the  air  was 
fenfibly  felt  every  day,  f?'o??i  fun  rife  till  fcven  or  eight 
0^ clock  in  the  evening.,  when  the  weather  was  dry  ;  but 
that  in  the  drieft  nights  of  that  fummer  he  could  difcover 
no  figns  of  eledlricity  in  the  air,  nor  till  the  morning, 
when  the  fun  began  to  appear  above  the  horizon,  and 
that  "  they  vaniftied  again  in  the  evening,  about  half  an 
*'  hour  after  fun  fet ;"  and  further,  "  that  the  firongcfl 
"  common  ele£tricity  of  the  atmofphere,  during  the  fum- 
"  mer,  was  perceived  in  the  month  of  fnly  on  a  ^)ery  dry 
"  day,  the  heavens  being  very  clear,  and  the  fun  extreme- 
"  ly  hot.'' 

Now,  as  this  electricity  of  the  air  was  fenfible  only  dur- 
ing day  light.,  no  electricity  being  difcoverable  therein  even 
in  the  drief  flights,  and  as  the  air  exhibited  the  fronge/i 
figns  of  electricity  when  the  fun  Ihone  extreinely  hot ;  is 
not  the  conclufion  unavoidable,  that  heat  fomehow  affedts 
the  eledtric  capacity  of  air,  either  enlarging  it,  and  there- 
by difpofing  the  air  to  attract,  receive  and  abforb  greater 
quantities  of  eledtric  matter  than  it  is  capable  of  abforbing 
in  its  natural  ftate  ;  or  fuperadding  to  its  natural  quantity 
more  than  it  can  abforb,  and  thereby  difpofing  it  to  throw 

off 

*  Page  399.        t  P»g«  343. 


THUNDER   STORMS,  83 

off  the  redundancy  upon  any  objedis  which  may  be  in  a 
lituation  to  receive  it  ?  One  or  the  other  feems  neceflarily 
to  follow,  but  the  former  is  moft  agreeable  to  do£lor 
Prieftley\  experiment  of  the  condenfed  air  in  the  tube  a- 
bove  mentioned,  and  is  perfedlly  confonant  with  the  ob- 
fervations  of  doftor  Franklin.,  Mr.  Kinnerjley  and  others, 
that  thunder  clouds  are  generally  in  the  ncgat'fve  ftate  of 
electricity*.  But  more  upon  this  head  hereafter.  I  would 
however  obferve  here,  that  many,  and  perhaps  all  other 
eleflric  fubftances,  even  the  moft  firm  and  folid,  as  well 
as  air,  are  liable  to  have  their  elecflric  capacities  thus  di- 
verfified  by  heat,  more  particularly  the  tourmalin  above 
mentioned.  But  as,  in  treating  of  the  properties  of  this 
flone,  dio€tox  Priejlley  has  thought  it  deferving  of  a  diftindt 
fe£lion  in  his  eledlric  hiftory,  to  that  I  fliall  refer  the  read- 
er for  a  particular  account  of  them  f ;  wherein  he  will  find 
a  difcovery  inade  by  MelTrs  Cantoji  and  TVi[/bn,  that  thefe 
properties  are  not  peculiar  to  the  tourmalin,  but  that  many 
gems  have  a  natural  difpoiition  to  afl^ord  the  fame  appear- 
ances ;  from  whence  we  may  conclude  as  above,  by  ana- 
logy, that  all  electric  fubftances  are,  more  or  lefs,  affedted 
in  like  manner,  by  the  fame  caufe.  But  to  return  to  the 
fubje£l. 

If  from  the  foregoing  confiderations  the  reader  fhould 
be  fatisfied,  that  the  electric  capacity  of  air,  in  its  con- 
denfed ftate  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  atmofphere,  is  li- 
able to  be  diminiflied  by  a  further  condenfation,  and  that, 
CiVteris  paribus.,  it  is  increafed  by  heat  et  vice  verfa ;  the 
folution  of  the  phenomena  of  thunder  and  lightening,  to 
his  latisfaftion,  upon  ele^Slrical  principles,  will  perhaps  be 
no  diflicult  tafk. 

For  let  us  conceive  a  region  of  the  atmofphere,  extend- 
ing over  a  large  tradt  of  country,  to  be  rarefied  and  hcat- 

L  2  ed 

*  Epitome  of  Phil.  Tranf.  Gent.  Mag.  Sept.  177J,  page  447.  Mr.  Henley  thinks  cold 
eletTLrifies  the  atmol'phcre  pofitively,  and  thence  conjcrtiircs  that  heat  cledlfihcs  it  negi.ively. 
•His  toiicUifioiis  are  ioundtd  upon  a  courl'c  of  experiments. 

t  Page  29  ?• 


84  THEORYoF 

ed  during  a.  hot  fummer's  day,  not  only  by  the  paflage  of 
the  fun's  diretfl  rays  through  it,  and  by  the  refledlinoof 
thofe  rays  from  the  furface  of  the  earth  into  it;  but  chiefly, 
by  the  communication  of  the  heat  acquired  by  that  furface 
to  it  :  The  eleSiric  capacity  of  that  region  of  air  would  be 
incrcafed,  both  on  account  of  the  heat  it  undergoes,  and 
of  the  rarefacftion  confequent  upon  that  heat :  It  will  then 
have  lefs  than  its  natural  quantity-,  or  the  quantity  it  is 
naturally  difpofed  to  receive  and  abibrb  in  that  ftate;  it  will 
confequently  be,  in  the  language  of  eleftncians,  negatively 
eledlriled,  or  in  a  craving  ftate,  requiring  and  forcing  fup- 
plles  from  all  fubftances  capable  of  affording  them,  pro- 
vided it  be  itfelf  in  a  condition  to  receive  them.  But, 
however  craving,  it  cannot  receive  thofe  fupplies  from  the 
neighbouring  regions  of  the  atmofphere,  while  thofe  re- 
gions feverally  remain  in  the  ftate  of  pure  air,  even  fup- 
pofing  the  latter  to  poflefs  more  than  iht'ir  natural  qiianti~ 
ties-,  and  thereby  as  much  difpofed  to  impart,  as  the  for- 
mer is  to  receive  them,  without  the  intervention  of  non- 
eleftric  condudlors  ;  and  that,  owing  to  the  impermeability 
of  air,  as  fuch,  to  the  eledtric  fluid.  This  I  fhall  endeavour, 
I.  To  illuftrate  by  experiments  made  with  glafs.  2.  To 
prove  by  experiments  made  upon  air  itfelf. 

I.  If  a  pane  of  glafs  be  coated  on  both  fides,  by  the  ap- 
plication of  plates  of  tin  to  them,  the  glafs  may  be  charged 
in  the  fame  manner  as  the  Leyden  phial  ;  when,  after  the 
removal  of  the  plates,  no  difcharge  having  previoufly 
taken  place,  both  fides  of  the  glafs  will  remain  charged, 
one  pofitively,  the  other  negatively  ;  the  former  having 
more  than  its  natural  quantity.,  the  latter  being  proportion- 
ably  deficient,  and  in  a  craving  ftate.  Thefe  ftates  both 
furfaces  will  obftinately  maintain  for  a  long  time  :  Nor  do 
I  know  of  any  method  of  reftoring  the  electric  equilibrium 
between  them,  but,  either  to  immerfe  the  pane  in  water  or 
fome  other  non-ele£tric  fluid,  which  will  do  it  inftantly, 
and  filently  j  or  to  reapply  the  metalline  coatings  to  both 

fides 


THUNDER    STORMS.  % 

fides  as  they  were  placed  at  flrfl:,  with  a  good  condudtor 
introduceci  between  them,  which  will  aniwer  the  fame  pur- 
pole,  and  be  attended  with  an  explofion,  or  fmart  ipark 
and  fnap  ;  or  laftly,-  to  place  it  in  a  fituation  where  it  may 
be  expoled  to  air  replete  with  moift  vapors,  where,  after 
fome  time,  the  vapors  will,  by  condenfnig  upon  each  fide, 
furniih  it  with  a  moillure  equivalent  to  a  non-ele£lric  coat- 
ing, while  the  vapors  which  remain  in  the  furrounding 
air  will,  by  continually  impinging  upon  and  receding  from 
the  two  furfaces,  at  length  reftore  both  to  their  natural 
ftate. 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  experiment,  F'lrJ}^  That 
the  charges  refide  in  the  glafs  iti'elf,  as  they  remain  after 
the  coatings  are  removed.  Secondly.,  That  the  oppofite  fides 
have  a  very  Arong  propenfity,  one  to  give,  the  other  to  re- 
ceive the  fluid,  and  thereby  to  reftore  the  electric  equili- 
brium between  themfelves;  which  is  done  with  violence, 
as  obferved  above,  when  they  are  put  in  a  condition  of  do- 
ing it  by  the  reapplication  ot  the  metalline  coatings,  with 
a  condu£lor  between  them,  and  Lajllvy  That  notwithftand- 
ing  the"  violent  propenfity  in  the  fides  of  the  glafs,  to  re- 
ftore themfelves  and  each  other  to  their  natural  eleftric 
flates,  and  the  fmall  diftance  between  them,  they  can  ne- 
ver effect  it,  without  thelntervention  of  non-ele£lric  con- 
dudlors. 

2.  I  fhall  now  fhew  by  other  experiments,  that  difi'erent 
regions  or  ftrata  of  air  mnv  become  charged,  both  pofi- 
tively  and  negatively,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  fides  of 
the  pane  of  glafs  were  in  the  foregoing;  and  that  the 
effe£ls  of  fuch  charges  are  precifely  the  fame. 

Melfrs  Wilkie  and  JEpinus  at  Berlin.,  having  the  hint 
naturally  fuggefted  to  them  by  a  previous  courfe  of  experi- 
ments, endeavoured  to  give  the  eledlrical  fhock  by  means 
of  rt/r,  in  the  fame  manner  in  which  it  may  be  given  by 
glafs  \  "  in  which  after  making  feveral  attempts  (fays  doc- 
"  tor  Prieflley*)  they  at  length  fuccecded,  by  fufpending 

"  large: 

'  Page  243, 


86 


THEORY     OF 


large  boards  of  wood  covered  with  tin,  with  the  flat  fides 
towards  one  another,  and  at  fome  inches  afunder.  For 
they  found,  that  upon  eledlrifying  one  of  the  boards 
pofitively,  the  other  was  always  negative.  But  the  dif- 
covery  was  made  complete  and  indifputable  by  a  perfon's 
touching  one  of  the  plates  with  one  hand,  and  bringing 
his  other  hand  to  the  other  plate;  for  he  then  received 
a  fhock  through  his  body  exadtly  like  that  of  the  Ley- 
den  experiment.  With  this  plate  of  air,  as  we  may  call 
it,  they  made  a  variety  of  experiments.  The  two  me- 
tal plates,  being  in  oppofite  itates,  ftrongly  attracted  one 
another,  and  would  have  rulhed  together  if  they  had 
not  been  kept  afunder  by  the  firings.  Sometimes  the 
eledricity  of  both  would  be  difcharged  by  a  ftrong  fpark 
between  them,  as  when  a  pane  of  glafs  burfts  with  too 
great  a  charge.  A  finger  pat  between  them  promoted 
the  difcharge,  and  felt  the  Ihock.  If  an  eminence  was' 
made  on  either  of  the  plates  the  felf-difcharge  would  al- 
ways be  made  through  it,  and  a  pointed  body  fixed  up- 
on either  of  them  prevented  their  being  charged  at  all." 
To  the  foregoing  relation  of  the  experiments  themfelves, 
I  fliall  fubjoin  the  conclufions  drawn  from  them  by  the  cu- 
rious electricians  who  made  them,  in  the  words  of  dodtor 
Priejiley-,  viz.  "  The  ilate  of  thefe  two  plates,  they  "  [M^il~ 
kie  and  JEpinus)  "  excellently  obferve,  juftly  reprefents  the 
"  ftate  of  the  clouds  and  the  earth"  (and  perhaps  of  dif- 
ferent clouds  at  various  heights  one  over  another)  "  dur- 


ing 


a  thunder  ftorm;   the  clouds  being  always  m   one 


flate,  and  the  earth  in  the  oppofite;  while  the  body  of 
air  between  them  anfwers  the  fame  purpofe  as  the  fmall 
plate  of  air  between  the  boards,  or  the  plate  of  glafs  be- 
tween the  two  metal  coatings  in  the  Leyden  experiment. 
The  phenomenon  of  lightening  is  the  burfting  of  the 
plate  of  air  by  a  fpontaneous  difcharge,  which  is  always 
made  through  eminencies,  and  the  bodies  through  which 
the  difcharge  is  made  are  violently  fhocked.'* 

As 


THUNDETv    STORMS.  87 

As  in  the  former  experiment  made  with  the  pane  of 
giafs,  the  charges,  both  pofitive  and  negative,  refide  in  the 
glafs  itlelf,  and  not  in  the  coatings,  thofe  remaining  after 
thefe  are  removed;  fo  in  the  Litter,  which  is  completely- 
analogous  to  it,  the  charges  are  accumulated  and  refide  in 
the  air  fituated  between  the  boards,  and  not  in  their  tin 
linings,  which  ferve  only  as  conductors,  to  diftribute  the 
fluid  equally  over,  or  to  convey  it  equally  from,  the  whole 
furface  of  air  which  is  limited  by,  and  in  contadl:  with 
them,  on  either  fide ;  whereby  the  whole  of  each  furface 
may  be  equally  charged  at  the  fame  time,  or  difcharged 
by  the  fame  explofion. 

If  two  or  more  regions  of  the  atmofphere,  when  free 
from  vapors,  become  thus  differently  electrical  in  their 
ftate  and  capacities,  which,  that  they  may,  from  the  heat 
and  confequent  rarefaction  in  a  fummer's  day,  we  have  al- 
ready feen,  and  perhaps  from  a  variety  of  other  caufes  to 
us  unknown;  and  if  from  the  contrary  currents  of  air 
which  frequently  take  place  at  different  heights,  they 
fliould  perchance  become  fituated  one  over  or  adjacent  to 
another,  like  ftrata  of  minerals  within  the  bowels  of  the 
earth;  what  the  metalline  coating  is  to  the  pane  of  glafs, 
or  the  tinned  boards  to  the  plate  of  air  in  the  laft  experi- 
ment, the  fame  would  clouds,  formed  and  floating  therein, 
be  to  thefe  regions  of  air;  the  eleClric  equilibrium  between 
which  might  be  reftored  through  their  intervention,  either 
by  fpontaneous  difcharges  through  the  pure  air  between 
them  in  fevere  flafhes  of  lightening  or  through  the  falling 
drops  of  rain,  which  in  their  I'ucceffive  defcent  form  a  chain 
of  natural  conductors  between  one  region  of  the  air  and 
another,  and  betwixt  each  of  them  and  the  earth;  the 
pafTage  of  the  eleCtric  fluid  through  which  would  alfo  he- 
attended  with  lightening  and  thunder,  but  not  fo  fevere  as 
when  the  difcharge  is  made  through  the  pure  air;  the  moft 
fatal  lightening  ufually  preceding  the  fall  of  the  rain. 

It 


$8  T  H  E  O  R  Y    OF 

It  is  not  uncommon,  during  the  rife  and  progrefs  of  a 
thunder  ftorm,  to  fee  different  fets  of  clouds,  at  various 
heights  in  the  atmofphere,  moving  promlfcuoufly  in  all 
directions,  as  though  they  were  impelled  hither  and  thi- 
ther by  contending  winds;  when  probably  the  whole  phe- 
nomenon arifes  from  the  different  eledrical  ftates  of  the 
regions  of  the  air  in  which  they  float;  as  they  approach 
one  or  other  of  which,  they  are  attradcd  or  repelled,  and 
move  accordingly,  communicating,  receiving,  or  tranfmit- 
ting  the  eledlric  fluid,  to  or  from  them  refpectively,  as  they 
may  be  either  deficient  of  their  natural  quantity,  or  poffefs 
a  redundancy  of  this  fluid.  And  as  in  the  experiment  of 
Meffrs  Wilkie  and  JEpinus  mentioned  above,  the  two  tin 
plates  with  the  boards  they  covered,  would  have  ruflied 
together  had  they  not  been  kept  afunderby  the  fl:rin;^s,  fo 
thefe  clouds  floating  freely  in  air,  and  being  at  liberty 
to  a£t  upon  every  impulfe,  gradually  coalefce,  reftoring 
the  eledtric  equilibrium  to  the  neighbouring  atmofphere 
by  repeated  difcharges  as  they  unite*;  till  at  length  they 
form  one  denfe  mafs  of  humid  vapors,  which  precipitating 
in  a  heavy  fliower  of  rain,  refrefh  the  thirfty  foil,  leaving 
the  atmofphere  above  in  a  homogenous  electric  ftate,  calm 
and  ferene. 

How  thefe  clouds  are  generated,  formed,  and  adapted 
to  thofe  grand  purpofes  in  the  oeconomy  of  nature,  is  next 
to  be  confidered:  In  profecution  of  which  inquiries  I  {hall 
fubmit  the  following  obfervations  to  the  candor  of  the 
reader. 

Whatever  the  immediate  caufe  of  evaporation  may  be, 
it  is  certain  that  the  fuperficial  moiflure  of  all  bodies  is 
perpetually  exhaling  in  vapors,  which  afcend  into  the 
higher  regions  of  the  atmofphere,  where  they  gather  and 
.are  formed  into  clouds,  and  at  length  recondenfe,  defcend- 

ing 

-  *  Tt  is  certain  that  in  moft  thunder  ftorms  the  fiafhes  of  lightening  are  chiefly  difcharged 
^rom  cloud  to  cloud,  very  few,  and  frequently  none  at  all  taking  place  between  the  cloud  and 
tlic  earth. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  Sc) 

ing  in  dew,  mid  or  rain  upon  the  furface  of  the  earth  from 
whence  they  fprang. 

Thefe  vapors  are  ellher  detached  in  ftreams  from  the 
humid  ground  by  the  influence  of  the  fun,  or  thrown  off" 
by  the  perfpirations  of  thofe  infinite  muhitudes  of  animals 
and  plants  which  cover  the  face  of  the  earth*,  or  fupplied 
by  evaporation,  from  the  ocean,  or  other  grand  collections 
of  water. 

Ignorant  as  we  are  of  the  nature  of  thefe  operations,  and 
of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  performed,  it  is  natural 
to  fuppofe,  that  the  vapors  themfelves  afcend  in  the  fame 
eleClric  ftate,  whether  pofitive,  neutral  or  negative,  with 
the  fubftances  from  which  they  arife.  Accordingly  fignior 
Beccar'uit  in  making  fome  of  his  experiments,  obferved, 
that  "  fteam  rifmg  from  an  eledlrified  eolipile  diffufes  it- 
"  felf  with  the  fame  uniformity  with  which  thunder  clouds 
"  fpread  themfelves  and  fwell  into  arches,  extending  itfelf 
"  towards  any  conducing  fubftancef ."  This  ftream  then 
was  eledlrified  as  well  as  the  eolipile  from  whence  it  pro- 
ceeded. The  fea  muft  neceffarily  be  fuppofed,  in  common 
with  the  whole  terraqueous  mafs,  to  contain  juft  its  natu- 
ral quantity  of  the  eleilric  fluid,  and  no  more:  We  may 
therefore  conclude  that  both  the  vapors  which  arife  imme- 
diately from  it,  and  the  air  which  fuftains  them,  and  from 
its  fituation  enjoys  a  more  equable  temperature,  than  that 
over  the  land,  are  in  the  fame  eledfrical  ftate  with  the  fea 
itfelf,  containing  neither  7nore  nor  lej's  than  their  natural 
quantity. 

Confidering  the  vaft  extent  of  the  ocean,  and  the  com- 
paratively fmall  degree  of  moillure  of  which  the  dry  land  is 
fufceptible,  we  may  conclude,  that  a  very  fmall  proportion 
of  the  clouds  which  are  formed  in  the  atmofphere  are  ex- 
haled from  the  latter,  and  that  the  ocean  is  the  grand 
fource  from  whence  they  principally  derive  their  origin. 

M  Our 

*  See  Uales^s  vegetable  ftatlcs,  and  Chambers's  cyclopedj  under  the  word,  Pcrfpiration. 
•\  Priellley's  HilTory,  page  327, 


90  THEORYoF 

Our  fenfcs  accordingly  convince  us  that  the  fea-air  is  al- 
ways replete  with  moill  vapors,  even  when  its  natural 
tranfparency  is  not  in  the  leaft  interrupted  by  them. 
Hence  in  a  hot  fummer's  day,  when  the  wind  fuddenly 
flilfts  from  weft  to  eaft,  we  immediately  perceive  a  chill 
from  the  fea-breeze;  and  fometimes  long  beiore  the  ther- 
mometer indicates  a  change  in  the  temperature  of  the 
atmofphere.  Thefe  vapors,  when  they  firft  arife  from  the 
fea,  are  generally  fo  nearly  of  the  fame  denfity  with  the 
furrounding  and  contiguous  air,  that  the  rays  of  light  in 
pafling  through  them,  undergo  no  fenfible  change  in  their 
refradion;  they  are  therefore  at  firft  generally  invifible, 
but  when  the  weather  is  extreamly  cold,  and  the  air  of 
confequence  uncommonly  denfe,  they  are  always  vilible, 
and  appear  like  a  fteam  arifing  from  boiling  water*.  Not 
that  vapors  afcend  moft  copioufly  in  the  coldeft  feafons, 
which  feems  contrary  both  to  reafon  and  experience;  but 
that  the  diff^erent  denfities  of  the  air  next  the  furface  of  the 
water,  and  of  the  vapors  which  afcend  in  it,  render  the 
latter  vifible,  by  the  irregular  refradlions  of  the  rays  of 
light  in  pafling  through  them.  For  the  fame  reafon  our 
breath  is  vifible  in  the  winter,  but  not  in  warm  weather. 

Let  us  now  fuppofe  the  atmofphere,  on  a  fummer's. 
morning,  to  be  all  around  in  a  honiogenous  ftate,  as  in- 
dicated by  a  cloudlei's  fky  and  a  dead  calm.  As  the  fun 
rifes  on  the  eaftern  coafts  of  America,  and  warms  and  ra- 
refies the  atmofphere  eaftward,  the  rarefied  air  naturally 
afcends,  and  a  current  of  air  as  naturally  iiows  thither  from 
the  oppofite  quarter,  which  is  but  juft  emerging  from  the 
cool  {hades  of  night,  to  fupply  its  place.  The  confequence 
of  which  is  a  light  wefterly  breeze.  As  the  fun  afcends 
higher,  the  air  over  the  land  becomes  heated  and  rarefied, 
both  by  the  pafTage  of  the  fun's  diredt  and  refiecled  rays 
through  it,  and  by  the  reverberation  of  the  heat  acquired 

from 

*  This  is  always  the  appearance  in  a  clcaij  ftill  morning,  when  the  mercurj-  in  Farenhcit's. 
thermometer  i^  at  o,  or  btlow  it. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  91 

from  them  by  the  furface  of  the  earth;  till  at  length  that 
whole  region  of  the  atmofphere  has  its  elcdtrical  capacity 
enlarged,  thereby  becoming  negatively  electrifed,  or  in  a 
craving  ftate,  as  obferved  before.  On  the  contrary  the 
fun's  rays  which  fall  upon  the  furface  of  the  fea,  efpecially 
when  ruffled  by  wind,  chictiy  enter  that  tranfparcnt  me- 
dium, in  which  they  are  refraded  and  irrecoverably  ab- 
forbed;  very  few,  comparatively,  being  refledled;  whence 
very  little  heat  can  be  reverberated  from  that  element  to 
warm  the  incumbent  air,  which  is  fenfibly  affected  only  by 
the  paffage  of  the  fun's  dire£l  rays  through  it,  unlefs  the 
weather  be  calm  and  the  furface  very  fmooth*.  Befides,  it 
is  colder  at  fea  than  afliore  in  the  fummer  feafon,  when,  and 
when  only  thunder  fhowers  are  frequent,  and  indeed 
warmer  in  the  winter,  for  the  following  reafon,  viz.  as  the 
fea  is  every  moment  changing  its  furface,  neither  heat  nor 
cold  can  affeft  it  fo  foon  as  they  do  the  furface  of  the  earth, 
which  continues  the  fame. 

The  air  over  the  land,  when  thoroughly  heated  and  ra- 
refied, naturally  afcends  into  the  higher  regions,  while  the 
denfer  air  from  the  fea  neceflarily  flows  in  and  takes  its 
place.  Hence,  probably,  the  eafterly  winds  which  ufually 
fpring  up  near  the  middle  of  the  day,  after  a  fultry 
morning. 

This  body  of  warm  air  afcends  till  it  arrives  at  that  re- 
gion of  the  atmofphere  in  which  thunder  clouds  are  form- 
ed ;  while  the  vapors  which  are  wafted  to  the  continent 
by  the  eaftern  current,  being  attracted  by  this  now  fupe- 
rior  air  which  demands  a  fupply  of  the  ele<5tric  fluid,  con- 

M   2  tinually 

*  In  a  perfect  calm  the  furface  of  tlie  fea  at^s  like  a  mirror  upon  tlie  fun's  rays,  llrongly  re- 
verberating them  back  into  tlic  atmofphere,  ivhcn  the  heat  is  as  fcufible  upon  water  as  upon 
the  dry  land.  But  whenever  that  furface  becomes  agitated  and  broken  by  the  force  of  wind 
aifling  upon  it,  thofe  rays,  by  perpetually  impinging  upon  an  infinite  variety  of  new  formed, 
fluiftuating  furfaces  undergo  innumerable  rcfraiflion^,  in  all  dire(ilions,  whereby  they  are  ab- 
iorbed  and  loft  within  the  fluid  mafs  in  fome  proportion  to  the  violence  of  the  agitation.  Ac- 
cordingly when  the  w-eather  is  ferene  and  calm,  the  furface  like  a  looking-glafs  reflects  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  Iky  over  head  ;  upon  the  firft  fpriuging  up  of  a  breeze  it  changes  to  a  light  blue, 
•which  deepens  to  a  fine  fky-blue  as  the  wind  rifes,  to  a  deeper  fea-green  in  a  briik  gale,  and  to 
a  fullen  blackncfs  in  a  ftorm,  excepting  where  the  waves  are  interfperfed  with  white  heads  of 
foani,  which,  by  contrail,  only  render  the  fcene  more  gloom;'. 


92  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

tinually  afccnd  till  they  arrive  at  it,  leaving  the  denfer  air, 
with  which  they  were  firft  connected,  behind.  As  thefe 
vapors  move  freely  through  and  mix  with  air,  they  eafily 
infmuate  themfelves  between  the  particles  of  that  fluid, 
and  unite  Vv^ith  it,  whereby  every  particle  of  air  which, 
from  the  caufes  aforefaid,  is  become  in  any  degree  defti- 
tute  of  the  quantity  of  electric  matter  which  is  natural  to 
it  in  its  prefent  ftate,  may  and  will  attratl  and  attach  to 
itfelf  one  or  more  particles  of  this  vapor,  and  thereby  fur- 
nifli  itfelf  with  a  non-ele£tric  coating,  and  thus  become 
qualified  to  receive  from  any  neighbouring  obje£t  fuch  a 
fupply  of  the  elecftric  fluid  as  its  ftate  may  demand. 

Thus  provided,  this  body  of  air,  together  with  the  va- 
pors which  are  more  or  lefs  attached  to  every  particle  of 
it,  will  conftitute  a  denfe  cloud  ;  and  as  the  air  itfelf  was 
before  (by  fuppofition)  in  a  craving  or  negative  ftate  of 
cledlricity ;  and  as  the  vapors  are  prcfumed  to  have  arifen 
from  the  ocean  in  their  natural  or  neutral  ftate,  the  whole 
body  of  a  cloud  formed  by  them  will  ftill  be  in  a  negative 
ftate,  and  thereby  conftitute  a  complete  thunder  cloud  ; 
which  when  formed,  if  uniform  in  denfity  and  contexture, 
fliould  it  be  attraiited  within  thejiriking  dijiance  from  any 
objedl  ftanding  upon  the  earth,  would  have  its  eleftric 
equilibrium  rcftored  at  once  by  a  flafti  of  lightening  dart- 
ing from  the  earth  :  Or  Ihould  it  pafs  near  another  cloud 
in  a  diiferent  ftate,  the  flafti  would  reftore  an  equilibrium 
between  the  two  clouds. 

That  a  body  of  air,  either  in  a  pofitive  or  negative  ftate 
of  electricity,  while  pure,  ftiould  be  incapable  of  commu- 
nicating its  furplufage  of  the  electric  element  to,  or  re- 
ceiving ftapplies  from  the  neighbouring  regions,  though 
in  a  contrary  ftate  ;  and  that  the  fame  air,  when  replete 
with  watery  vapors,  may  be  reftored  to  an  equilibrium 
throughout  its  whole  extent  by  an  inftantaneous  difcharge, 
may  yet  require  fome further  evidence  before  it  be  admitted. 

But, 


THUNDER    STORMS.  93 

But,  as  the  particles  both  of  air  and  vapor  are  feverally 
too  minute  to  fall  under  our  notice,  I  fliall  endeavour  to 
illuftrate  by  analogy  what  cannot  be  diredly  demonftrated 
by  experiment.  In  order  to  this,  I  fliall  firft  give  a  ge- 
neral defcripticn  of,  and  then  fubjoin  fome  obfervations 
upon  dodtor  Prlejlley''%  electrical  battery. 

This  battery  confiiled  of  fixty  four  cylindrical  glafs  jars 
fixed  in  a  fquare  box  ;  the  jars  were  coated  within  and 
without  with  tin  foil,  and  the  floor  of  the  box  was  cover- 
ed with  the  fame,  a\  hereby  the  outfides  of  all  the  jars 
formed  but  one  continued  eledlrical  furface.  In  like  man- 
ner, by  means  of  fmall  brafs  bars  extending  over  the 
mouths  of  the  jars  in  their  feveral  ranges,  and  by  wires 
v;hich  conne£ted  the  feveral  bars,  together  with  others 
which  defcended  from  them,  communicating  with  the  in- 
ner coating  of  each  jar,  their  interior  furfaces  were  fo 
connected  as  to  form,  in  the  fame  fenfe,  but  one  furface. 
Thus  conftrudted,  the  whole  battery  is  capable  of  being 
equally  charged  in  every  part  at  the  fame  time,  and  of  be- 
ing difcharged  throughout  by  the  fame  explofion. 

Here  I  would  obierve,  that  if,  inftead  of  the  metalline 
coatings,  the  jars  were  filled  with  water  to  the  fame  height 
with  them,  and  were  immerfed  in  the  fame  order  in  a 
fquare  veflel  of  water  to  an  equal  depth,  the  bars  and  wire 
remaining  as  before,  the  fuccefs  of  all  the  experiments 
made  with  them  would  be  the  fame  as  above.  Let  then  a 
battery  be  conilruCled  and  charged  in  this  form  ;  after 
which  let  the  bars  and  wires  aforefaid  be  removed,  and 
the  water  contained  in  the  jars  be  decanted  off  by  glafs 
fyphons,  and  let  the  water  be  drawn  off  from  the  veflel  in 
which  they  ftand.  It  is  evident  from  the  experiment  of 
the  charged  pane  of  glafs  already  mentioned,  and  other 
experiments  recited  in  doctor  Franklin's  letters,  that  thefe 
jars  will  remain  Je'verally  charged,  as  they  were  jointly 
before.  They  may  now,  when  dry,  be  taken  out  and 
handled  at  pleafure  with  fafety ;  nor  can  they  be  eafily  re— 

llored; 


94  T  H  E  O  R  Y     o? 

ftored  to  their  natural  ftates,  but  either  by  immerfing  them 
fingly  under  water,  or  by  replacing  the  whole  apparatus 
and  filling  both  the  jars,  and  the  box  which  contains  them, 
with  water  as  at  firft,  and  introducing  a  metalline  conduc- 
tor betwixt  the  water  without  the  jars  and  any  one  of  the 
wires  which  connedt  their  infides  ;  then  the  whole  will  be 
inftantly  difcharged  v/ith  an  explofion*. 

To  apply  thefe  obfervations  to  the  prefent  fiabjeft,  we 
may  regard  every  particle  of  a  body  of  puref,   but  inci- 
dentally eleftrified  air,  in  the  fame  light  with  one  of  the 
jars   in  the  battery  aforefaid,    which,  after  having  been 
charged,  is   deprived  of  its  adventitious  coatings  :   Each 
particle,  like  one  of  thofe  jars,  will  retain  the  ftate  it  may 
happen  to  be  in,  fo  long  as  it  remains  deftitute  of  a  con- 
ducting appendage.    But  when,  and  by  what  means  foever, 
a  fufficiency  of    moift  vapors  fhall   become   interfperfed 
amongft  thefe  particles  of  air  to  furnifh  them  feverally  with 
non-eledtric  coatings,  and  by  the  nearnefs  or  contiguity  of 
thefe  vapors  to  form  a  communication  from  one  to  another 
throughout  the  whole,  they  will  then  be  in  the  fame  con- 
ne(ftcd  ftate  with  the  jars  in  the  battery,  when  complete 
in  every  part,  and  charged  ;    and  like  thofe  jars  be   the 
particles  ever  fo  numerous,  they  will  be  in  a  capacity  of 
jointly  receiving  or  communicating  the  ele(ftric  fire.     And 
as,  by  the  addition  of  jars  in  the  conftruftion  of  the  bat- 
tery, the  explofion  at  the  difcharge  may  be  increafed  inde- 
finitely, fo  will  the  violence  of  the  explofion  from  a  thun- 
der cloud  be  increafed  in  proportion  to  its  extent,  and  to 
the  multitude  of  aerial  particles   together  with   their  ap- 
pendant vapors  of  which  it  confifts,  and  which  are  fo  con- 
nected as  to  be  capable  of  uniting  in  the  fame  difcharge. 
But  as  a  thunder  cloud  is  not  ufually  formed  at  once,  but 
by  degrees,  fmaller  clouds  generally  forming  themfelves 

in 

*  Thefe  cMperiments  I  never  faw  particularly  made,  but  the  conclufions  ncceflarily  follow 
from  fome  which  I  have  feen,  as  well  as  from  thofe  pointed  out  above. 

■j-  Pure  as  to  the  purpofes  of  electricity,  or  free  from  condu6ling  vapors ;  perhaps  pure  ele- 
mcntarj'  air  is  not  to  be  found  in  our  atmofphere. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  95 

in  fcparate  parties  before  they  join  the  main  body  ;  and  as 
the  eledtrical  ftates  of  thefe  clouds  may  be  very  different 
from  each  other,  from  the  different  electrical  ftates  of 
thole  parts  of  the  atmofphere  in  which  they  gather  ;  the 
general  equilibrium  of  the  atmofphere  over  a  country  can- 
not be  reftored  by  a  fmgle  difcharge,  but  fucceffive  flafhes 
will  dart  from  cloud  to  cloud,  and  betwixt  thefe  and  the 
earth,  till  at  length  the  whole  colleded  mafs  of  vapor  is 
fpent  and  diffolved  in  rain. 

Here  a  common  obfervation  naturally  occurs,  viz.  that 
frequently  after  a  f^afh  of  lightening  a  Hidden  fliower  de- 
fcends  in  large  drops.  The  mutual  attradlion  between  the 
vapors  and  the  air,  when  in  this  eledrlcal  ftatc,  is  fufhcl- 
ent  to  fuftain  the  former,  notwithftanding  that  they  arc  by 
this  attraction  greatly  condenfed,  being  as  it  were  forced 
into  a  phyfical  contact,  both  with  the  particles  of  air,  and 
with  each  other*.  But  as  foon  as  the  air  is  reftored  to  its 
natural  electric  ftate  by  a  fiafh  of  lightening,  this  attradioa 
ceafes,  and  the  vapors  precipitate  by  their  own  fpecific 
gravity  in  a  heavy  fhower. 

Long  and  extenfive  calms,  in  certain  latitudes  and  fea- 
fons,  take  place  upon  the  ocean,  during  the  continuance. 
of  which,  the  heat  is  Icarcely  tolerable.  (See  note,  page  91.) 
Where  thefe  take  place  the  air  will  naturally  undergo  the 
fame  changes,  in  its  denfity  and  electric  capacity,  as  the 
air  over  the  land  does  in  the  fummer  feafon,   and,  when 

fufliciently 

*  A  gentleman  of  my  acquaintance,  who  is  both  intelligent  and  curious,  informed  me  fonie 
years  fince,  that  he  was  once  upon  the  top  of  a  mountain  in  Spain,  upon  which  a  thtmder  cloud; 
gathered  ;  that  as  foon  as  tlie  cloud  became  infulatcd  from  the  mountain  it  difchar^ed  a  vio- 
lent tempeft  of  thunder  and  lightening  upon  the  plains  hclow  ;  that  he  never  was  fo  tJiorough- 
ly  fo;'.ked  in  the  moll  \Iolent  Hlower  as  when  in  the  body  of  this  cloud,  though  without  a  drop 
of  rain,  feeling  as  if  he  had  been  immerfcd  in  a  river.  This  idea  is  further  juftified  by  tlie  fo- 
lid  appearance  of  tlic  clouds  that  rife  in  the  weft  on  a  hot  fummer's  day,  compared  with  thofe, 
which  float  in  the  atmofphere  at  other  fcafons  ;  which  fhews  a  manifeft  diflerence  in  their  den-  ■ 
fity  and  contexture  :  And  wlien  we  obferve  attentively  the  feveral  part*  of  a  thunder  cloud,  the ; 
dillindlnefs  of  their  borders  and  their  Iwelling  furbeloe^;  how  flrongly  they  refletft  the  rays  of 
the  fun,  thereby  exhibiting  the  moll  vivid  lights  and  deep  contralling  fhades ;  and  on  the  other  ■ 
hand  obferve  the  beautiful  eflecls  of  their  refraifiive  power  in  the  intenfe  golden  (kirts  which 
adorn  the  rifing  cloud  with  a  fetting  fun  behind  it;  we  muft  neceflTarily  conclude,  that,  al- 
though the  vapors  of  which  fuch  clouds  confift  are  collecled  and  condenfed  in  higher  regions  of.- 
the  atmofpliere  than  arc  thofe  which  ufually  form  clouds  at  other  feafons,  yet  their  denfity  andi 
frccific  gravity  is  much  greater ;  and  they  derive  their  fupport  from  the  eleClric  principle. . 


g6  THEORYoF 

fufficiently  heated  and  rarefied,  will  In  like  manner  afcend, 
its  place  being  fupplied  by  the  denfer  air  from  all  quarters 
without  the  limits  of  the  calm.  This  heated  and  confe- 
quently  (granting  the  principles  of  the  prefent  theory) 
eledlrical  air,  when  raifed  to  a  certain  height  in  the  at- 
mofphere,  may  become  as  well  adapted  to  the  formation 
of  a  thunder  cloud,  from  the  vapors  which  are  perpetual- 
ly exhaling  from  the  fea,  as  the  air  over  the  land  under 
the  like  circumftances.  Wherefore,  in  ibme  latitudes  in 
all  feafons,  and  perhaps  in  all  latitudes  in  different  feaforis 
of  the  year,  thunder  ftorms  may  as  well  happen  at  fea, 
even  at  remote  diftances  from  land,  as  alhore. 

I  now  proceed  to  confider  an  objedion  which  may  be 
raifed  againft  the  foregoing  theory,  which  I  fhall  firft  ftate 
in  its  full  force,  and  then  endeavour  to  give  a  fatisfadlory 
anfwer  to  it. 

Objecfion.  If  the  ele£lrification  of  that  body  of  air  in 
•which  a  thunder  cloud  is  formed  depends  upon  the  heat 
it  has  previoully  acquired,  whence  is  it  that  thunder  ftorms 
are  frequently  attended  with  fhowers  of  hail,  which  hail 
is  fometimes  fo  large  as  to  indicate  its  defcent  from  the 
coldeft  regions  of  the  atmofphere  ? 

Anfwer.  Sir  Ifaac  Nexvton  aiferts  from  experiments  of 
his  own,  that  "  the  denfity  of  the  air  in  the  atmofphere  of 
*'  the  earth  is  as  the  weight  of  the  whole  incumbent  air." 
Confequently  the  air  gradually  decreafes  in  denfity  from 
the  furface  of  the  earth  to  the  top  of  the  atmofphere.  The 
body  of  air  which  is  fuppofed  in  this  theory  to  be  qualifi- 
ed by  the  adion  of  heat  upon  it,  to  become  a  proper  fub- 
Jlration  for  the  formation  and  fupport  of  a  thunder  cloud, 
is  thereby  expanded  and  rarefied,  and  thence  becomes  fpe- 
clfically  higher  than  it  was  before:  It  therefore  afcends 
till  it  arrives  at  that  height  in  the  atmofphere  at  which  the 
air  is  naturally,  from  its  fituation,  of  the  fame  rarety  with 
itfelf ;  and  there  it  refts  in  equilibrio.  This  region  is  ex- 
ireamlv  cold  at  ali  feafons,  as  appears  from  the  teftimonies 

of 


THUNDER    STORMS.  97 

of  travellers  who  have  vifited  the  tops  of  very  high  moun- 
tains, even  under  the  line.  The  greater  the  heat  which 
this  body  of  air  acquires  below,  the  greater  degree  of  ra- 
refadlion  it  undergoes,  and  the  higher,  of  confequence,  it 
afcends  in  the  atmofphere,  where  the  cold  is  proportion- 
ably  more  fevere  than  is  ufual  near  the  furface  of  the  earth. 
But  though  it  was  the  heat  which  it  acquired  below  that 
firfl;  rarefied  and  expanded  it,  it  will  by  no  means  be  pro- 
portionably  recondenfed  by  the  cold  which  it  meets  with 
in  its  afcent ;  for  as  the  heat  which  occafioned  its  rarefac- 
tion decreafes  upon  that  account,  the  prelTure  of  the  in- 
cumbent atmofphere  upon  it  decreafes  as  it  rlfes,  whereby 
its  denfity  may,  upon  the  whole,  remain  nearly  the  fame  ; 
if  fo,  may  we  not  fuppofe  its  electrical  ftate  aUo,  previous 
to  the  formation  of  the  cloud,  to  continue  nearly  the  fame  ? 
For  fliould  this  warm  air  afcend  all  together  as  in  a  body, 
without  intermixing  with  the  denfer  furrounding  air  through 
which  it  rifes,  as  a  bubble  of  air  does  in  any  other  fluid, 
and  as  this  air  probably  would  in  a  calm  feafon,  the  den- 
fer parts  of  the  atmofphere  eafily  giving  way  to  it,  till  it 
arrives  at  that  region  the  denfity  of  which  is  equal  to  its 
own,  where  it  would  be  at  reft ;  ftiould  this,  I  fay,  be  the 
cafe,  it  would  not,  even  in  that  cold  region,  cool  fo  fud- 
denly  as  to  undergo  any  immediate  change  in  its  electrical 
ftate,  from  the  natural  coldnefs  of  the  region  ;  neither 
would  it  be  from  condenfation,  its  denfity  remaining  nearly 
the  fame,  as  obferved  above. 

But  when  the  cloud  is  formed,  or  rather  when  a  number 
of  clouds  are  forming  In  the  neighbourhood  of  each  other, 
and  joining  their  forces  preparatory  to  the  tempeft,  a  ge- 
neral confufion  takes  place  in  the  atmofphere;  various  and 
even  contrary  currents  of  air  flowing  promifcuoudy  hither 
and  thither,  as  is  evident  from  the  vifible  irregular  moti-. 
ons  of  detached  parts  of  the  clouds.  In  this  general  efl^ort 
of  nature  to  reftore  an  equilibrium,  fome  of  thefe  aerial 
currents  will  probably  introduce  air,  which  having  been 

N  till 


98       ■  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

till  now  at  a  dillance  from  the  fcenc  of  a£tion,  has  fuffered 
uo  material  change  in  its  natural  eleQric  ftate* ;  and  is  on 
the  contrary  fraught  with  all  the  cold  which  is  natural  to 
the  region  of  the  atmofphere  from  whence  it  came,  la 
falling  through  this  adventitious  current  of  air,  the  drops 
of  rain,  precipitating  from  the  body  of  clouds  above,  are 
congealed  into  ice,  and  defcend  in  hail,  which  as  it  falls 
collcds  other  fnowy  or  icy  particles  round  it ;  a  hail-ftone 
when  it  comes  to  the  ground  refcmhling  denfe  fnow  with 
a  nucleus  or  kernel  of  folid  ice  in  the  middle. 

That  the  air  which  this  hail-ftone  falls  through  is  cold- 
er than  the  region  from  whence  it  defcends,  may  be  thus 
proved,  viz.  If  the  freezing  took  place  where,  and  as  foon 
as  the  vapors  were  firft  fet  at  liberty  by  a  flafh  of  lighten- 
ing, it  would  be  impoflible  for  them  ever  to  unite  into 
drops,  but  they  muft  defcend  in  the  fineft  chryftals,  an 
affemblage  of  which  conftitutes  a  flake  of  fnow  ;  the  nu- 
cleus, or  proper  hail-ftone  then  muft  have  been  firft  a  fluid 
drop,  and  afterwards  congealed  in  its  fall  through  a  colder 
region  than  that  in  which  it  was  formed. 

It  may  be  further  objedled,  that  a  thunder  cloud,  in  the 
eaftern  parts  of  America,  always  makes  its  firft  appearance 
in  the  weft,  over  the  land,  its  progrefs  being  toinmrds  the 
fea;  which  feems  to  contradict  the  fuppofition  in  the  the- 
ory, that  the  vapors  of  which  it  confifts  are  chiefly  fuppli- 
t^from  the  fea. 

To  which  I  anfwer,  i.  That  a  thunder  cloud  is  with  us 
very  rarely,  indeed  fcarcely  ever  formed  in  the  weft,  with- 
out a  fea-breeze  fpringing  up  previoufly  from  the  eaft, 
2.  That  the  fea  air,  as  obferved  before,  always  abounds 
with  vapors,  although  from  the  caufes  already  afligned, 
they  are  ufually,  at  their  firft  rifing,  invifible.  3.  That  the 
firft  appearance  of  a  cloud  will  always  be  where  the  vapors 

are 

*  This  furrofition  will  he  juftiGed  by  confidering,  that  fuch  is  frequently  the  ftate  of  the 
atmofphere,  thjt  the  thunder  clouds  which  are  formed  in  it  arc  but  of  fniall  extent ;  notwith- 
ftanciing  \\hich,  the  char.ge  in  tlie  ftate  of  the  air  occaCoacd  by  them  is  perceived  to  the  dif- 
tancc  of  many  leagues  round. 


THUNDER    STORMS.  99 

are  firft  colleded  into  a  body  and  condenfed,  and  thereby- 
rendered  vifible,  which  in  a  thunder  cloud  will  be  in  the 
weft,  notwlthftanding  the  vapors  of  which  it  confifts  may 
chiefly  have  arifen  from  the  fea.  4.  That  when  a  thunder 
cloud  is  once  formed  it  will  be  in  a  ftate  of  attraiflion  with 
the  earth  in  general,  and  more  efpecially  fo  with  all  fub- 
ftances  which  are  natural  condudtors  of  the  electric  fluid, 
fuch  as  the  water  contained  in  rivers,  bays,  arms  of  the 
fea,  &c.  and  by  thefe  the  courfe  of  a  thunder  cloud  is 
known  to  be  very  fenllbly  afFe£ted. 

But  the  ocean  is  the  grand  objedl  towards  which  its 
courfe  will  be  direfted;  accordingly  the  progrefs  of  the 
clouds  is  from  the  weftern  horizon,  eaftward,  be  the  wea- 
ther below  what  it  may,  not  excepting  the  moft  violent 
eafterly  ftorms,  which  are  fometimes,  though  but  rarely, 
accompanied  with  thunder  and  lightening. 

To  the  foregoing  obfervations  I  would  add,  5.  That 
when  an  extenfive  thunder  cloud  is  forming  in  the  atmof- 
phere  by  means  of  the  mutual  attra(Sl;ion  of  the  conden- 
fmg  vapors,  and  the  body  of  ele£trifed  air  which  fuftains 
and  condenfes  them,  the  increafing  denfity  of  the  whole 
compound  mafs  of  air  and  vapor  will,  by  degrees,  occafioa 
its  redefcent  towards  the  earth,  from  the  law  of  gravity; 
it  will  alfo  be  attracted  by,  and  move  towards  the  ocean, 
upon  the  principles  of  eledtricity ;  the  cloud  will  then  de- 
fcend  obliquely,  in  a  diagonal  between  the  directions  of 
thefe  two  powers;  and  both,  continually  a£ling  upon  it, 
will  jointly  accelerate  its  motion.  Such  a  cloud,  if  denfe 
and  large,  would  end  in  a  perfedt  tornado,  either  upon  the 
land  or  water,  as  thunder  ihowers  frequently  do;  fmaller 
clouds  being  alfo,  ufually,  accompanied  with  gufts  or 
flurries  of  wind. 

I  fliall  here  add  one  obfervation  more  wliich  I  have  fre- 
quently made,  and  which  may  tend  to  confirm  the  fore- 
going theory,  viz.  That  as  the  general  courfe  of  the  eaftern 
coafl:  of  north  America  is  from  north-eail  to  fouth-weft; 

N  2  the 


lOO 


THEORY     OF 


the  courfe  of  a  thunder  cloud  is  ufually  from  the  north- 
weft,  with  the  wind  at  fouth-eaft,  perpendicular  to  the  di- 
redlion  of  the  coaft,  and  contrary  to  each  other. 

Inland  feas  and  great  lakes,  fuch  as  are  thofe  in  North- 
America,  may  anfwer  the  fame  purpofes  in  the  interior 
parts  of  the  country,  as  the  ocean  does  near  the  limits  of 
the  continent ;  both  by  affording  the  neceffary  fupplies  of 
•vapors  for  the  formation  of  the  clouds,  and  by  their  attrac- 
tive influence  upon  thofe  clouds  when  formed. 

I  now  conclude  with  a  few  hmts,  which  I  fliall  throw 
into  the  form  of  queries. 

1.  Whatever  the  primary  caufe  of  evaporation  maybe, 
does  not  the  formation  of  vapors  into  diftindt  clouds  de- 
pend upon  the  eleftrical  ftate  of  the  atmofphere  ? 

2.  Were  the  atmofphere  always  uniformly  electrical 
could  we  have  any  rain*;  in  that  cafe,  if  evaporation  be 
performed  independent  of  ele<^ricLty,  fhould  we  not  be 
invelloped  in  everlafting  fogs  ? 

3.  Mr.  Canton  fuppofes  that  the  aurora  borealis  may  be 
"  the  flaflilng  of  eledric  fire  from  pofitive  towards  nega- 
"  tive  clouds,  throughout  the  upper  part  of  the  atmof- 
"  phere."  But  as  the  air  is  ufually  charged  more  or  lefs 
with  vapors,  even  when  perfeftly  pellucid  ;  and  as  the 
mofl;  remarkable  aurora  frequently  appear  without  a  cloud 
in  the  hemifphere,  may  not  this  phenomenon  be  rather 
occafioned  by  the  "  flafhing  of  eledlric  fire,"  from  one 
region  or  body  of  air  to  another  in  a  different  ftate  of  elec- 
tricity, through  the  intervening  vapors  ? 

4.  May  not  thereafon  of  its  ufual  appearance  In  the  north 
and  of  its  flafhing  fbuthv\^ard  be,  that,  in  every  northern 
latitude,  the  air  to  the  fouthward  is  at  all  feafons  of  the 
year,  ceteris  paribus,  more  affected  by  the  heat  of  the  fun 
than  the  air  northward  of  the  fame  latitude;  and  does  not 
this  occalion  an  eledirical  current  to  flow  from  north  to 

fouth, 

•  Slgnior  Bec:arta  concludes  from  experiments,  that  gentle  rains  are  the  effefts  of  a  mcdeiaU, 
»s  thunder  fliowers  are  of  a  more  plentiful,  eki^ritit)'. 


WATERSPOUTS.  loi 

fouth,  fo  often  as  the  above  mentioned  circumftances  con- 
cur, though  with  fome  interruption  from  the  irregular  dif- 
pofition  of  the  conducing  vapors;  and  may  not  this  occa- 
fion  thofe  gleams  and  llreams  with  which  this  phenomenon 
is  ufually  attended? 


N°  vm. 

Theory  of  Water  Spouts,  by  Andrew  Oliver,  EfquirC', 
of  Salem  in  the  State  of  MaJJachifetts. 

IN  my  laft  I  took  the  liberty  to  communicate  to  the  Phi- 
lofophical  Society  a  Theory  of  Lightening  and  Thunder 
Storms,  which  was  iiiggefted  to  my  mind  upon  the  peru- 
fal  of  dodor  Prieflefs  hifiory  of  eledricity.  In  the  in- 
veftigation  of  which  theory,  while  I  was  endeavouring  to 
account  for  the  exhibitions  of  thofe  phenomena  upon  the 
ocean,  at  great  diftances  from  the  land,  fome  thoughts  na- 
turally occurred  relative  to  the  110 ater  f pout ;  a  phenome- 
non as  curious  perhaps  as  any  one  in  nature,  and  which 
can  rarely  take  place  but  at  fca. 

Water.  SPOUTS  have  by  fome  been  fuppofed  to  be  mere- 
ly eletSrical  in  their  origin;  particularly  by  Xx^mox  Beccaria, 
(Priejileyh  hift.  of  eled:.  p.  t,^^,  0,^6)  who  feems  to  have 
fupported  his  hypothefis  by  fome  experiments.  But  as 
feveral  fuccelfive  phenomena  are  neceifary  to  conftitute  a 
complete  water  fpout,  (fome  of  which  undoubtedly  de- 
pend upon  the  eleftric  principle)  if  we  attend  to  the  mod 
authentic  defcriptions  of  thefe  (pouts,  through  their  vari- 
ous ftages,  from  their  firft  exhibition  to  their  total  diffipa- 
tion,  we  fnall  be  obliged  to  have  recourfe  to  fome  other 
principle,  in  order  to  obtain  a  complete  folution.  I  fhall 
therefore, /r/?,  defcribe  thefe  phenomena  according  to  the 
beft  obfervations  1  have  met  with  ;  and  then^  endeavour  to 

give 


102  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

give  a  general  philofophical  folution  of  them.  But  I  muft 
here  obferve,  that  the  following  defcriptions  are  all  taken 
from  the  accounts  of  mariners,  who  are  indeed  the  only 
perfons  that  have  opportunities  of  viewing  them;  but,  un- 
fortunately for  the  caufe  of  philofophy,  do  not  ufually  ob- 
ferve them  with  that  circumftantial  accuracy,  refpefting 
the  previous  and  fubfequent  ftates  of  the  atmofphere,  which 
may  be  neceffary  to  found  a  complete  phyfical  folution 
upon ;  nor  with  any  view  to  that  end,  as  it  is  foreign  to 
their  main  bufmefs,  trade  and  commerce.  But  as  fuch  ac- 
counts are  the  beft  I  have  met  with  even  in  the  Tranfac- 
tions  of  the  Royal  Society  down  to  1 744,  lower  than  which 
I  have  not  feen  them;  from  fuch  I  fhall  endeavour  to  draw 
the  beft  conclufion  which  the  nature  of  the  evidence  will 
juftify. 

The  moft  intelligent  and  beautiful  account  of  a  water 
fpout  that  I  ever  met  with,  is  in  the  abridgment  of  the 
Phil.  Tranf.  vol.  viii,  by  Martin,  pa.  655,  as  it  was  ob- 
ferved  by  Mr.  Jofeph  Harris,  May  21,  173-2,  about  fun- 
fet,  lat.  32"^  30'  N.  long.  9°  E.  from  cape  Florida ;  which 
I  fhall  here  tranfcribe. 

"  When  firft  we  faw  the  fpout  (fays  he)  it  was  whole 
"  and  entire,  and  much  of  the  fhape  and  proportion  of  a 
*'  fpeaking  trumpet ;  the  fmall  end  being  downwards,  and 
"  reaching  to  the  fea,  and  the  big  end  terminated  in  a  black 
"  thick  cloud.  The  fpout  itfelf  was  very  black,  and  the 
"  more  fo  the  higher  up.  It  feemed  to  be  exactly  perpen- 
"  dicular  to  the  horizon,  and  its  fides  perfectly  fmooth, 
"  without  the  leaft  ruggednefs.  Where  it  fell  the  fpray 
"  of  the  fea  rofe  to  a  confiderable  height,  which  made 
"  fomewhat  the  appearance  of  a  great  fmoke.  From  the 
"  firft  time  we  faw  it,  it  continued  whole  about  a  minute, 
"  and  till  it  was  quite  diflipated  about  three  minutes.  It 
"  began  to  wafte  from  below,  and  fo  gradually  up,  while 
"  the  upper  part  remained  entire,  without  any  vifible  al- 
"  teration,  till  at  laft  it  ended  in  the  black  cloud  above. 

"  Upon 


WATER     SPOUTS.  103 

*'  Upon  which  there  feemed  to  fall  a  very  heavy  rain  in 
"  that  neighbourhood.  There  was  but  little  wind,  and 
"  the  fky  elfevvhere  was  pretty  ferene " 

In  other  accounts  contained  in  the  Philofophical  Tranf- 
adions,  thefe  phenomena  are  defcribed  as  having  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  fword  pointing  downwards,  fometimes  per- 
pendicularly fometimes  obliquely  towards  a  column  of  wa- 
ter or  froth,  which  feems  to  rife  out  of  the  fea  to  meet  it, 
attended  with  a  violent  ebullition  or  perturbation  at  the  fur- 
face.  Again  in  others  the  appearance  is  compared  to  fmoke 
afcending  vifibly  as  through  the  funnel  of  a  chimney,  either 
diredly,  or  with  a  fpiral  motion,  which  according  to  the 
fancies  of  fome  refembles  the  afcent  of  water  in  the  fcrew 
oi  Archimedes  ;  by  fuppofing  fomething  fimilar  to  which 
in  the  atmofphere,  they  have  endeavoured  to  account  for 
■the  rife  of  the  water  from  the  fea  in  a  water-fpout.  To 
which  I  would  add,  that,  from  the  relations  of  fome  pcr- 
fons  who  ufe  the  fea,  with  whom  I  have  converfed  upon 
the  fubjed:,  I  find  that  it  is  no  uncommon  thing,  during 
a  calm  below,  and  a  ferene  fky  above,  to  obferve  at  the 
diftance  of  two  or  three  leagues  a  fmall  cloud  hovering  in 
the  air,  from  whence  the  commencing  fpout  feems  to  dart 
downward  to  the  fea,  upon  which  the  nfual  phenomena 
take  place  in  their  order.  I  have  alfo  been  informed  (and 
to  information  I  muft  truft,  having  never  been  at  fea)  that 
it  is  common  during  thefe  appearances  for  fliips  to  fail, 
even  within  hail  of  each  other,  with  different  winds;  and 
within  the  limits  of  the  fame  vifible  horizon,  with  contrary 
winds:  And  laftly,  that  the  rife  and  progrefs  of  this  pheno- 
menon is  fometimes  fo  rapid,  that,  even  in  a  ferene  iky,  a 
few  minutes  will  be  fufficient  to  generate  a  cloud  from  one 
of  thefe  fpouts,  and  to  difcharge  from  thence  a  heavy  fhow- 
er  of  rain. 

Before  I  proceed  to  attempt  a  philofophical  folution  of 
thefe  curious  produdlions  of  nature,  in  which  the  two 
principal  fluids  of  our  globe,   air  and  water,  are  largely 

concerned  j. 


104  T  H  E  O  R  Y    OF 

concerned;  it  may  be  neceffary  to  make  fome  obfervatlons 
upon  the  nature  and  properties  of  fluids  in  general,  as  fuch. 

1.  No  fluid  can  be  at  reft  unlefs  every  part  of  it  refpec- 
tively  be  a£ted  upon  by  an  equal  force  or  preflure  in  every 
direction,  till  when  its  feveral  parts  will  neceflarily  recedtr 
from  the  greater  preflure  towards  the  lefler,  nor  can  an 
equilibrium  take  place. 

2.  If  two  or  more  fluids  of  difi'erent  natures  and  denfl- 
ties  come  together,  fuch  as  quickfilver,  water,  oil  and  air, 
which  will  not  mix;  they  will  take  their  places  according 
to  their  fpecific  gravities,  the  denfeft  remaining  at  the 
bottom. 

3.  If  a  veflcl  be  filled  with  either  of  thefe  fluids,  and  a 
denfer  be  admitted  into  it,  the  latter  will  expel,  and  take 
place  of  the  former. 

4.  If  an  empty  cylindrical  fpace  be  furrounded  on  all 
fides  by  a  fluid,  which  is  excluded  by  fome  refifting  fur- 
face  terminating  that  fpace,  the  fluid  will  neceflarily,  upon 
the  fudden  removal  of  the  obftacle,  immediately  flow  in 
from  every  fide  towards  the  center  of  the  void;  and  as  it 
flows  inwards  the  parts  next  furrounding  this  fpace  will 
thereby  be  crowded  together,  and  force  each  other  up- 
wards, till  at  length  when  clofed,  the  fluid  will  by  its  af- 
cent  have  formed  a  column  diredtly  over  the  middle  of  the 
fpace,  to  a  height  proportionable  to  the  united  force  of  the 
converging  currents.  This  muft  be  the  cafe  with  every 
fluid  thus  flowing  into  a  vacuum;  and  in  a  lefl'er  degree 
when  a  denfer  fluid  in  a  fimilar  fituation  fupplants  a  rarer: 
And  the  greater  the  diff'erence  of  the  denfities  of  the  two 
fluids  might  be,  the  more  confpicuous  would  be  the  effe&. 

This  reafoning  may  be  illuftrated,  and  the  conclufions 
exemplified  by  fadts  which  muft  have  occurred  to  the 
obfervation  of  every  one.  Do  we  not  obferve  when  a 
fliower  of  hail,  or  rain  in  large  drops,  falls  upon  the  fur- 
face  of  ftagnant  water,  that  the  water  rifes  wherever  they 
fall,  like  fo    many   little    inverted  icicles,  which  again 

inftantly 


WATER     SPOUTS.  105 

inftantly  fubfide  ?  The  caufe  of  which  undoubtedly  is,  that 
thefe  drops,  or  hail-ftones,  defcending  from  a  great  height; 
in  the  atinofphere,  acquire  feverally  fuch  a  momentum  in 
their  fall  as  to  plunge  through  the  furface  to  a  proportional 
depth,  driving  the  fuperficial  water  back  on  every  fide, 
and  leaving  a  momentary  vacuum  behind  them  ;  not  in- 
deed a  pure  vacuum,  but  fuch,  relative  to  the  furrounding 
fluid,  which  immediately  returns  to  fill  up  the  chafm,  and, 
as  it  clofes,  gathers  and  riles  in  the  little  columns  above 
defcribed.  When  a  large  round  ftone,  or  any  other  heavy 
body  plunges,  the  effed  is  proportionably  greater. 

5.  Let  us,  for  argument's  fake,  fuppofe  the  atmofphere 
over  any  certain  circular  trail;  of  ocean  of  fome  miles  in 
diameter,  to  be  for  a  moment  annihilated,  the  fpace  it  oc- 
cupied before  being  reduced  to  a  pure  vacuum  :  The  fur- 
rounding  atmofphere,  when  at  liberty,  would  rurti  in  from 
every  quarter  towards  the  centre,  where  the  converging 
currents  would  immenfely  croud  each  other,  and  force  up 
a  vaft  quantity  of  air  through  a  very  narrow  funnel,  con- 
tradted  below  by  the  united  preffure  of  thofe  currents  from 
all  fides,  into  the  higher  regions ;  which  funnel,  as  the 
denfity  of  the  air  leifens  according  to  its  height,  and  the 
furrounding  prefllire  which  contracts  It  muft  decreafe  near- 
ly in  the  fame  proportion,  would  more  and  more  diverge 
and  expand  the  higher  it  rofe  above  the  furface  of  the  fea. 
This  would  be  attended  with  a  mol^  furious  blafl  of  wind 
up  to,  and  far  above  the  top  of  the  atmofphere.  In  like 
manner, 

6.  If  inftead  of  a  pure  vacuum,  or  a  total  annihilation 
of  fuch  part  of  the  atmofphere,  we  fuppofe  the  fame  to  be- 
come, by  any  means  whatever,  fpecifically  lihgtcr  than  the 
furrounding  regions,  the  cffeft  would  be  the  fame  as  above, 
in  kind,  though  not  in  degree  ;  the  denfer  air  flowing  in, 
but  with  lefs  rapidity,  from  all  quarters  without,  expelling 
the  lighter  and  fupplving  its  place,  as  in  article  four;  upon 
which  alio  a  large  quantity  of  this  confluent  air,  for  the 

O  fame 


loG  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

fame  reafon,  would  be  driven  up  with  violence  through  a 
like  narrow  vent,  yet  not  with  the  fame  impetuofity,  nor 
to  the  fame  height  as  if  forced  through  this  funnel  into  a 
pure  vacuum. 

That  the  atmofphere  over  large  tra£ts  of  fea  or  land  may 
thus  become  fpecifically  lighter  than  that  over  the  fur- 
rounding  regions,  will  be  evident,  if  we  confider,  i.  That 
heat  has  a  natural  tendency  to  rarefy  and  expand  the  air 
upon  which  it  a£ts.  .2.  That  the  atmofphere  over  our  heads 
docs  not  confift  of  mere  elementary  air,  but  is  an  univer- 
fal  receptacle  of  all  the  heterogeneous  vapors  and  effluvia' 
that  are  perpetually  exhaling  from  every  fubftance  that 
exifts  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  whether  animal,  veget- 
able or  mineral.  3.  That,  by  the  cafual  difpofition  of 
thefe  vapors  and  effluvia  in  the  atmofphere,  the  air,  which- 
is,  of  itfelf,  naturally  enough  difpofed  to  acquire  heat  from 
the  paflage  of  the  fun's  rays  through  it,  may  become  more- 
difpofed  to  imbibe  and  retain  that  heat,  in  one  region,  than- 
in  another  in  its  neighbourhood  ;  which,  from  the  inter- 
vention of  clouds,  or  from  its  purity  and  freedom  from 
thofe  fleams  and  vapors  with  which  the  former  is  charged, 
may,  in  a  great  degree,  retain  its  natural  coolnefs  and' 
denfity,  while  the  other  becomes  heated,  rarefied  and  ex- 
panded, and  is  thereby  rendered  fpecifically  lighter. 

That  thefe  different  affedlions  of  the  atmofphere  aclu- 
ally  take  place,  and  difpofe  the  air,  at  one  time  and  in  one 
place,  even  in  the  fame  fcaions  of  the  year,  to  imbibe  and 
retain  the  heat  excited  by  the  fun's  rays,  more  than  at 
another,  is  not  a  matter  of  mere  conjedlure  ;  but,  what- 
ever the  caufe  may  be,  is  notorious  to  all  perfons  of  ob~ 
fervation. 

Thefe  things  being  premifed,  I  beg  leave  to  obferve  fur- 
ther, that  fome  parts  of  the  ocean  are  liable  to  long  and 
extenfive  calms,  during  the  continuance  of  which  the  heat 
is  fcarcely  tolerable.  Where  thefe  take  place  the  air  muft 
neceifarily  undergo  proportional  changes  in  its  denfity  and 

ele£lric 


WATERSPOUTS.  107 

dearie  capacity* ;  and  when  heated  and  rarefied  to  {hme 
certain  degree  will  give  way,  as  obfcrved  above,  to  the 
denier  air,  now  proportionably  difpofed  to  flow  in  from 
all  quarters  without  the  limits  of  the  calm. 

When  once  this  ftagnated  air,  efpecially  if  of  any  great 
extent,  becomes  fpecifically  lighter  than  the  furrounding 
air,  and  fufficiently  rare  to  be  fupplanted  by  it ;  the  latter 
will,  of  courfe,  fet  it  from  every  fide  in  horizontal  currents; 
which  will  flow,  either  diredlly,  or  obliquely,  towards  one 
point,  in  or  near  the  centre  of  the  becalmed  region  afore- 
faid  ;  the  obliquities  of  which  currents  will  depend  upon 
the  diredions  and  velocities  of  the  winds,  or  currents  ot 
air  which  might  previoufly  have  taken  place  in  the  fur- 
rounding  regions.  When  thefe  currents  arrive  at  the  cen- 
tre of  their  mutual  convergency,  all  the  ftagnated  and  ra- 
refied air  which  was  before  incumbent  upon  the  calm  fur- 
face  of  the  fea,  will  have  been  expelled  and  forced  higher 
up  into  thcatmofphere;  upon  which  thefe  currents,  by  their 
mutual  concourfe  in  one  place,  will  exceflively  croud  each 
other,  as  obferved  above,  wherever  it  happens,  driving  the 
central  air  upwards  with  a  violent  blaft  ;  which,  fhould 
the  currents  fet  in  obliquely,  and  fo  converge  with  a  fpiral 
motion  towards  the  centre  of  their  mutual  concourfe, 
would  afcend  as  through  the  fcrew  of  Archimedes,  or  the 
■worm  of  a  cork-fcrew,  to  both  of  which  navigators  have 
likened  thefe  fpouts :  Otherwife  it  would  rife  through  a 
flrait,  narrow  funnel,  as  inarticles  five  and  fix  above;  which 
if  filled  with  any  opaque  matter  would  become  vifible,  and 
at  a  diftance  would  refemble  a  fpcaking  trumpet  with  the 
fmall  end  downwards,  in  which  form  the  water  fpout  fre- 
quently appears.  In  the  former  cafe  a  whirlwind  round 
about  the  centre  would  undoubtedly  be  the  confequence  ; 
and  in  either,  a  water  fpout  would  probably  be  producedf. 

O  2  For 

•  See  Theoi-y  of  Lightening,  &c.  page  8l. 

t  We  (hall  in  the  fequel  fee  abuiulant  reafon  to  conclude  with  doctor  FranUm  and  others, 
that  water  fpouts  at  fea  and  whirlwinds  on  the  land  (fomc  fpecici-of  ihematleaft)  are  produc- 
ed by  the  fame  caufcs. 


io8  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

For  the  preflure  of  the  atmofphere  is  taken  off  from  that 
part  of  the  furface  of  the  fea,  which  is  diredly  under  the 
funnel  through  which  the  air  is  driven  up;  whereas  the 
furrounding  furface  is  at  the  fame  time  uncommonly  pref- 
fed,  from  the  confluence  of  the  currents  from  all  quarters*, 
Avhereby  the  water  muft  necelfarily  be  forced  up  to  a  cer- 
tain height,  proportional  to  the  furrounding  preflure, 
through  the  fame  funnel  with  the  air  itfelf,  nor  is  this  all, 
for  in  their  afcent  the  air  and  water  become  confufedly 
mixed  together,  whereby  the  latter  is  broken  and  attenu- 
ated into  the  finefl;  globules  and  particles,  as  when  one 
forcibly  blows  water  out  of  his  mouth;  and  from  this 
mixture  of  the  two  fluids  doubtlefs  arifes  that  opacity 
which  renders  the  fpout  vifible. 

This  opaque  column  of  air  and  water,  together  with  the 
paflTage  through  which  it  afcends,  will  expand  as  it  rifes, 
in  proportion  as  the  comprclTure  diminillies;  and,  to  fpec- 
tators  at  too  great  a  diftance  to  difcern  the  narrow  flem 
next  the  water,  will  refemble  a  fword,  or  acute  cone 
pointing  downwards  from  a  fmall  cloud;  to  which  they 
are  frequently  likened.  But  that  they  do  at  the  fame  time 
communicate  with  the  fea  is  evident  from  the  perturbati- 
on of  the  water  directly  under  them,  which  fometimes 
boils  and  foams  at  a  great  rate.  This  is  ulually  the  firft 
appearance  of  one  of  thefe  fpouts,  the  duration  of  which 
is  either  longer  or  fhorter,  and  the  fubfequent  phenome- 
na more  or  lefs  confiderable,  according  to  the  extent  of  the 
caufe,  and  the  mode  of  its  operation. 

The  water  being  thus  railed  from  the  fea,  and  forced 
irrefiftably  upwards  in  the  fineft  globules  by  the  protrud- 
ing air,  arrives  at  length  at  the  warm  electrical  airf  lately 

expelled, 

*  In  the  abridnjmcnt  of  PhilofophicalTranfaflions,  vol.  IT.  (by  Eames  and  Martin)  page  6 1, 
at  the  bottom » it  appears,  that  the  meeting  ot"  two  contrary  currciits  of  air  or  contrary  winds,  rai- 
fes  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  near  tlie  place  where  it  happens,  which  indicates  an  incrcafe  of 
the  prefTiirc  of  the  atmoi'phere  upon  the  furface  of  tlie  earth  or  fea.  How  much  more  then  mud 
that  prelfure  be  increafcd,  from  a  general  confluence  of  the  air  from  all  quarters  towards  one 
Ipot  ? 

t  Sec  Theory  of  Lighteningj  &c.  page  90.  j 


WATERSPOUTS.  loc^ 

expelled,  which  was  previoufly  Incumbent  upon  the  calm 
furface  beneath ;  the  ele6lric  attraction  of  which  probably 
alhfts  the  further  afcent  of  thefe  particles  after  the  iirft  fury  ' 

of  the  blaft  is  fpent.  There  it  undergoes  another  opera- 
tion being  converted  into  vapor,  whereby  it  is  wholly  dif- 
charged  of  the  marine  falts  it  carried  up  with  it*';  which 
are  now  left  to  fhift'for  themfelves,  together  with  innu- 
merable other  heterogeneous  corpufcles  which  fuceffively 
float  in  the  atmofphere,  and  which  in  due  time,  become 
feverally  fubfervient  to  many  wife  purpofes  in  the  cecono- 
my  of  nature.  Thefe  vapors  will  then  be  greedily  attach- 
ed by  the  craving  particles  of  this  air,  now  deficient  of  its 
natural  quantity  of  eledlric  matterf,  and  form  a  denfe 
cloud,  in  like  manner  as  thunder  clouds  are  formed  over 
the  land ;  but  with  much  greater  expedition,  as  the  fupply 
of  vapors  is  more  fudden.  This  cloud  will  then  be  ready 
in  a  Ihort  time  to  difcharge  a  fhower  of  frelh  water  upon 
the  fea  from  whence  it  rofe,  and  may  be  attended  with 
thunder  and  lightening,  or  not,  as  the  air  in  which  the 
cloud  was  formed  was  more  or  lefs  eleftrical,  or  the  cloud 
extenhve. 

A  previous  calm  may  not  be  necejfary  to  the  production, 
of  thefe  phenomena,  and  indeed  they  frequently  happen 
without  one:  But,  upon  the  fame  principle,  if  it  be  calm- 
er where  they  arc  produced,  or  the  ftate  of  the  atmofphere 
there  be  fuch  as  to  difpofe  it  to  acquire  and  retain  the  heat 
acquired  from  the  fun's  rays,  more  than  in  the  furroimd- 
ing  regions,  which,  as  we  have  feen  above,  may  be  the 
cafe,  the  efFedts  may  be  the  fame  in  kind,  though  perhaps 
not  in  degree;  the  moft  perfect  water  fpouts  probably  rif- 
ing  from  whence  there  has  previoufly  been  a  dead  calm,, 
or  nearly  fuch,  for  the  foregoing  reafons. 

If 

*•  The  water  carried  up  in  one  of  thefe  fpouts  is  undoubteiUy  fait  when  it  firft  rifes  from  tlie 
fea,  as  it  afcends  in  great  cjuantities,  and  in  a  very  denfe  column;  but  it  is  always  frefh  when  it 
defcends  again  in  a  fhower :  It  mull  tlierefore  in  tlie  mean  time  have  gone  through  a  compkat 
natural  diftillation. 

f  Theory  of  Lightening,  &c.  page  92. 


I 


no  T  H  E  O  R  Y     OF 

If  there  be  any  wind  at  the  time  of  the  phenomenon, 
the  aerial  funnel  through  which  the  water  afcends,  inftead 
of  being  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  as  it  would  be  in  a 
calm,  might  incline  more  or  lefs  to  it,  in  proportion  to  the 
ilrength  or  weaknefs  of  the  prevailing  current  of  air:  Or, 
inftead  of  continuing  in  one  fpot,  it  might  have  a  progref- 
five  motion  over  the  furface  of  the  fea,  in  the  direction  of 
the  general  current;  both  of  which  circumftances  frequently 
take  place.  In  either  cafe  it  is  natural  to  fuppofe,  that  both 
air  and  water  would  afcend  fpirally,  as  through  the  worm 
of  a  fcrew,  every  current  which  fets  in  towards  the  centre 
receiving  an  oblique  bias  from  the  prevailing  current. 

It  fometimes  happens,  that  after  the  fubfiding  of  a  fpout, 
it  is  fucceeded  by  a  fecond,  and  that  by  a  third,  either  in 
the  fame  place,  or  at  no  great  diftance  from  it.  But  this 
alfo  is  analogous  to  what  we  obferve  upon  the  plunging 
of  heavy  bodies  out  of  air  into  water.  For,  after  the  firft 
fubfiding  of  the  fmall  column  of  water  which  is  occafion- 
ed  by  it,  and  is  above  refembled  to  an  icicle,  the  water 
again  rifes  and  fubfides  as  at  firft,  though  not  in  the  fame 
degree,  as  may  be  concluded  from  thofe  fainter  concentric 
circles  which  expand  from  the  fame  centre  after  the  fub- 
fidence  of  the  firft  column.  The  fame  thing  which  here 
takes  place  in  water,  may  alfo  take  place  in  air,  under 
fimilar  circumftances. 

Since  writing  the  foregoing,  while  I  was  endeavouring 
to  contrive  fome  experiment  to  illuftrate  the  fubjedl,  a  very 
fimple  one  was  fuggefted  to  my  mind,  the  fuccefs  of  which 
I  think  demonftratcs  the  truth  of  the  hypothefis  introduced 
above  to  account  for  the  firft  afcent  of  the  water  in  the 
fpout ;  the  event  being  precifely  the  fame  as  was  expected 
before  hand,  and  as  ought  to  have  taken  place  upon  the 
principles  above  advanced. 

EXPERIMENT. 

In  a  ftifF  paper  card  I  made  a  hole  juft  big  enough  to 
infert  a  goofe  quill  fo  as  that  it  might  be  fixed  perpendi- 
cularly 


WATERSPOUTS.  xir 

cularly  to  the  plane  of  the  card  :  After  cutting  the  quill 
off  fquare  at  both  ends  and  fixing  it,  I  laid  the  card  upon 
the  mouth  of  a  wine  glafs,  filled  with  water  to  within  one 
fifth  or  fixth  part  of  an  inch  from  the  lower  orifice  of  the 
quill ;  then  applying  my  mouth  to  the  upper  part,  I  drew 
out  the  air  in  the  quill  by  a  ftrong  fudtion,  and  in  one 
draught  of  my  breath  drew  in  about  a  fpoonful  of  the  wa- 
ter ;  this  by  ftronger  fu«5tions  I  was  able  to  repeat  again 
and  again,  the  quill  remaining  as  before.  The  water,  as 
I  expected,  did  not  al'cend  to  the  mouth  in  a  ftream,  as  it 
would  have  done  had  the  quill  reached  below  the  furface  j 
but  broken  and  confufedly  mixed  with  the  air  which  afcend- 
ed  with  it ;  as  is  above  fuppofed  to  be  the  cafe  m  the  afcent 
of  water  in  a  fpout  at  fea. 

In  this  experiment  the  fuftlon  occafioned  a  vacuum,  or 
at  leaft  a  great  rarefaction  of  the  air,  within  and  diredlly 
under  the  quill ;  the  furrounding  air  of  courfe  flowed  in 
from  every  quarter  to  fupply  it,  rufhing  up  into  the  quill, 
and  through  it  to  the  mouth  ;  the  preffure  of  the  atmof- 
phere  being  thereby  taken  off  from  the  lurface  of  the  wha- 
ler immediately  under  the  orifice,  while  the  prefigure  upon 
the  furrounding  furface  remained,  and  was  probably  in- 
creafed,  the  water  was  forced  up  together  with  the  air  as 
above  notwithftanding  the  quill  had  no  manner  of  com- 
munication with  the  water.  If  the  fuftion  be  made  very 
fi:rong,  and  the  quill  be  fixed  at  the  diilance  of  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  or  more  from  the  water,  a  confiderable  agitation 
and  ebullition  takes  place  In  the  v/ater  under  it,  fimilar  to' 
that  obferved  in  moft  natural  water  fpouts,  and  the  pafTage 
of  the  water  from  the  furface  to  the  quill  becomes  very 
vifible. 

It  was  hinted  in  a  preceding  note,  that  water  fpouts  at 
fea  and  whirlwinds  at  land,  fome  fpecies  of  them  at  leaf!:, 
arife  from  the  fame  caufe,  how  different  foever  their  ap- 
parent effe(£ls  may  be.  This  I  think  is  made  fufficiently 
evident  from  the  obfervations  of  a  couple  of  land  fpouts  at 

Hatfield 


112  THEORY     OF 

Hatjieldm  Torkpnrc,  by  Mr.  Abr.  de  la  Pryme^^  whofe  ac- 
counts of  them  I  fhall  here  tranfcribe,  as  the  Tranl'adions 
of  the  Royal  Society  are  in  the  hands  of  but  few  among 
us,  and  as  the  fa£ls  related  by  him  tend  ftrongly  to  con- 
firm the  prefent  theory,  however  his  conclufions  from 
them  may  differ  from  it. 

"  On  the  15th  of  Auguft,  1687,  (fays  he)  appeared  a 
*'  fpout  in  the  air  at  Hatfield  in  Yorkjld'ire  ;  it  was  about  a 
"  mile  off  coming  direiitly  to  the  place  where  I  was  ;  I 
*'  took  my  profpedlive  glaffes  to  obferve  it  as  well  as  I 
*'  could. 

"  The  feafon  was  very  dry,  the  weather  extret7ie  hot, 
*'  and  the  air  very  cloudy ;  the  wind  aloft,  and  pretty 
"  ftrong,  and  (which  is  remarkable)  blowing  out  of  feve- 
*'  ral  quarters  at  the  fame  time,  and  filling  the  air  here- 
*'  abouts  with  mighty  thick  and  black  clouds,  layer  upon 
"  layer  ;  the  wind  thus  blowing  foon  created  a  great  twr- 
*'  tex,  gyration  and  ivbirUng  among  the  clouds  ;  the  cen- 
*■'■  tre  of  which  every  now  and  then  dropt  down  in  the 
*'  fhape  of  a  thick,  long,  black  pipe,  commonly  called  a 
*'  fpout ;  in  which  I  could  dillinftly  view  a  motion  like 
"  that  of  a  icrew,  continually  drawing  upwards,  and  fcrew- 
*'  ing  up  (as  it  were)  whatever  it  touched.  In  its  progrefs 
*'  it  moved  llowly  over  a  hedge-row  and  grove  of  young 
*'  trees  which  it  made  to  bend  like  hazle  wands,  in  a  clr- 
*'  cular  motion  ;  then  going  forw^ard  to  a  great  barn  it 
*'  twitched  off  in  a  minute  all  the  thatch,  and  filled  the 
"  whole  air  therewith.  Coming  to  a  very  great  oak  tree, 
*'  it  made  it  bend  like  the  foregoing  trees,  and  broke  off 
*'  one  of  the  greateft  and  ftrongeft  branches  that  would 
*'  not  yield  to  its  fury,  and  twilling  it  about,  flung  it  to  a 
*'  very  confiderable  diftance  off;  then  coming  to  the  place 
*'  where  I  ftood,  within  three  hundred  yards  of  me,  I  be- 
*'  held  this  odd  phenomenon,  and  found  that  it  proceeded 
*'  from  nothing  but  a  gyration  of  the  clouds  by  contrary 

•winds 

*  Abridgment  of  Philofuphical  Tranfadions,  vol.  IV.  by  Jones,  page  Io6,  107. 


WATERSPOUTS.  115 

*'  iv'inds  meeting  in  a  point  or  centre  ;  and  where  the  great- 
"  eft  condenfation  and  gravitation  was,  falHng  down  into 
"  a  pipe  or  great  tube  (fomething  like  the  cochlea  Arcbi- 
"  viedis)  and  that  in  ilvS  working  or  whirhng  motion,  ei- 
"  thcr  lucks  up  water,  or  deftroys  ihips,  &c.  Having  tra- 
"  veiled  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  farther,  it  dilfolved  by 
*'  the  prevalency  of  the  wind  that  came  out  of  the  ealt." 
The  account  of  the  other  is  as  follows,  viz.  "  I  have 
*'  feen  another  fpout  in  the  fame  place,  which  very  much 
*'  confirms  nie  in  my  notion  of  the  origin  and  nature  of 
"  them. — The  21ft  of  June,  1702,  v^diS,  pretty  ivarm  ;  on 
"  the  afternoon  of  which  day,  about  two  of  the  clock,  no 
*'  isjind Jlirring  heloiv  though  it  was  lomewhat  great  in  the 
*'  air,  the  clouds  began  to  be  mightily  agitated  and  driven 
*'  together  ;  whereupon  they  became  very  black,  and  were 
"  (moft  vifibly)  hurried  rounds  from  whence  proceeded  a 
*'  moil  audible  whirling  noife,  like  that  commonly  heard 
*'  in  a  mill.  After  a  while,  a  long  tube  or  fpout  came 
*'  down  from  the  centre  of  the  congregated  clouds,  in 
*'  which  was  a  {w'lhfpiral  motion  like  that  of  a  fcrew,  or 
*'  the  cochlea  Archimedis  when  it  is  in  m.otion,  by  which 
*'  fpiral  nature  and  fwift  turning,  water  afcends  up  into 
"  the  one  as  well  as  into  the  other.  It  travelled  flowly 
"  from  weft  to  north-eaft,  broke  down  a  great  oak  tree  or 
"  two,  frighted  fome  out  of  the  fields,  and  made  otheii 
"  lie  down  flat  upon  their  bellies,  to  fave  being  whirled 
*'  about  and  killed  by  it,  as  they  faw  many  jackdav>?s  to 
*'  be,  that  were  fuddenly  caught  up,  carried  out  of  fight, 
*'  and  then  caft  a  great  way  amongft  the  corn  ;  at  laft  it 
"  palTed  over  the  town  of  Hatfield^  to  the  great  terror  of 
"  the  inhabitants,  filling  the  whole  air  with  the  thatch  that 
*'  it  plucked  off  from  fome  of  the  houles  ;  then  touching 
*'  upon  a  corner  of  the  church,  it  tore  up  feveral  fheets  of 
*'  lead,  and  rolled  them  ftrangely  together  ;  foon  after 
"  which  it  dilfolved  and  vanilhed  without  doing  any  fur- 
"  ther  mifchief. 

P  "  13y 


114  T  H  E  O  R  Y     or 

"  By  all  the  obfervatloas  that  I  could  make  of  this,  and 
"  the  former,  I  found  that  had  they  been  at  fea  and  joined 
"  to  the  furface  thereof,  they  would  have  carried  a  vaft 
"  quantity  of  water  up  into  the  clouds,  and  the  tubes  would 
"  then  have  become  much  more  ftrong  and  opaque  than 
*'  they  were,  and  have  continued  much  longer. 

"  It  is  commonly  faid  that  at  fea  the  water  colledls  and 
"  bubbles  up  a  foot  or  two  high  under  thefe  fpouts  before 
*'  that  they  be  joined  :  But  the  miftake  lies  in  the  pellu- 
"  cidity  and  finenefs  of  thofe  pipes,  which  do  moft  certain- 
"  ly  touch  the  furface  of  the  fea  before  that  any  confider- 
"  able  motion  be  made  in  it,  and  that,  when  the  pipe  be- 
"  gins  to  fill  with  water,  it  then  becomes  opaque  and 
"  vifible." 

I  fhall  here  make  a  remark  or  two  upon  the  above  cited 
author's  mode  of  expreflion  in  the  foregoing  accounts, 
which  is  evidently  adapted  to  a  preconceived  idea  of  the 
cochlea  Arcbhnedisy  by  fuppofing  fomething  limilar  to 
which,  as  taking  place  in  our  atmofphere,  he  is  not  alone 
in  endeavouring  to  account  for  thefe  phenomena.  In  con- 
formity to  this  idea  he  fpeaks  of  the  fpout  ;:$  draiving  up- 
tvards-,  and  Jcreiving  up  whatever  it  touched  ;  and  fup- 
pofes  that  by  its  fpiral  motion  and  fti'ift  turning,  water 
afcends  in  it  as  in  the  Jcreiv  of  Archimedes.  But  this  hy- 
pothefis,  however  fpecious,  has  been  long  fmce  exploded 
as  unphilofophical. 

Mr.  de  la  Pryme  mentions  the  appearance  of  a  long  black 
pipe  which  now  and  then  dropped  down  from  the  centre 
of  the  gyrating  clouds  ;  in  which  pipe  he  diftindlly  view- 
ed a  motion  like  that  of  a  fcrew  ;  and  as  fuch  he  leems  to 
have  fuppofed  it  ailed,  viz.  either  in  the  manner  of  a  cork- 
fcrew  upon  folids;  or  as  the  cochlea  Archimedis  upon  fluids, 
drawing  them  up  into  the  atmofphere.  But  as  he  himfelf 
afterwards,  when  applying  his  obfervations  to  a  fpout  at 
fea,  very  juftly  concludes  that  the  pellucidity  and  finenefs 
of  thefe  pipes  over  the  water  render  them  invifible  below, 

"  uotwithftanding 


WATER     SPOUTS.  115 

"  notwithftanding  (as  he  conceives)  that  the  pipes  do  moft 
"  certainly  touch  the  furface  of  the  lea  before  any  confider- 
"  able  motion  be  made  in  it,  and  that  they  are  then  rendered 
"  opaque  and  vifible  when  they  begin  to  fill  with  water  ;" 
might  he  not  with  equal  reafon  have  fuppofed  that  thofe 
aerial  pipes  which  he  obferved  over  the  land  were  alfo  con- 
tinued from  the  clouds  down  to  the  furface  of  the  earth,  as 
from  their  effedls  below,  one  would  naturally  conclude 
they  were,  and  that  they  were  pellucid  and  invifible  fo 
long  as  they  contained  nothing  but  air  ;  but  that  "  every 
"  now  and  then,"  when  they  met  with  any  fiibftances 
which  might  perchance  pafs  within  the  compafs  of  their 
gyration,  or  which  they  could  eafily  carry  up ;  fuch  as 
detached  parts  of  the  broken  clouds  ;  water  from  ftagnant 
ponds,  brooks  and  rivers,  hay,  ftubble,  thatch,  diift,  &c. 
they  then  become  opaque  and  vifible,  and  that  they  ap- 
peared to  dart  downwards  by  a  kind  of  optical  deception  ? 
For  upon  the  foregoing  principles  thefe  pipes  of  air  muft 
neceffarily  be  broadeft  above,  as  we  have  already  feen,  and 
terminate  in  a  narrow  ftem  below,  the  broadeft  part  being, 
at  a  diftance,  firft  vifible,  and  the  fhank  feemingly  taper- 
ing downwards  to  a  point.  It  is  however  certain  from  the 
eftefts  of  the  above  mentioned  fpouts,  that,  whatever  the 
appearances  were  aloft^  they  were  all  occafioned  by  the 
rufhing  of  the  air  upwards  through  a  narrow  paffage,  that 
was  contradled  bdov)^  by  the  concourfe  and  predure  of  the 
oppofite  currents  of  that  fluid,  and  dilated  above  from  the 
diminution  of  that  preiTure. 

I  have  referved  for  this  place  an  account  of  a  curious 
fpout  which  made  its  appearance  anno  1694,  not  at  fea, 
but  in  the  harbour  of  TopJJ.mm'''^ ,  and  at  low  M'ater  ;  which 
palled  with  a  flow  progrefllve  motion  over  both  land  and 
water;  aifting  as  a  complete  water  fpout  over  the  latter,  and 
as  a  whirhvind  upon  the  former:  For  when  it  pafl'ed  over 
the  channel  of  the  river,  it  threw  up  the  water  in  a  denfe 

P  2  ftream, 

•  *  Lowthoqj's  Abiidgm.  Pl'.il.  Tranf.  vol.  II.  page  I04. 


ii6  THEORYoF 

ftream,  as  If  It  had  been  impelled  through  the  hofe  of  a 
fire  engine,  and  the  ftream  accordingly  ended  in  a  thick 
mift,  refembling  a  dark  fmoke;  the  furface  of  the  water, 
round  about  the  fpot  from  whence  it  rofe,  being  greatly- 
agitated,  as  is  ufual  in  thofe  phenomena.  In  its  courfe  it 
rnet  with  the  hull  of  a  new  fliip  of  about  one  hundred  tons, 
which  was  much  fliaken  by  it,  but  received  no  hurt.  In 
paffmg  over  the  flats  it  took  hold  of  a  boat  which  was 
fallened  to  an  anchor,  whirled  both  boat  and  anchor  to 
fome  heicht  in  the  air,  and  rent  the  boat  "  from  the  head 
"  to  the  keel.''''  When  it  reached  the  fhore  it  lifted  up  an- 
other boat  about  fix  feet  from  the  ground,  letting  it  fall 
again  upfidcdown;  and  had  a  ftrange  effe£t  upon  a  parcel 
of  planks,  fome  of  which  were  raifed  up  perpendicularly, 
and  flood  upon  their  ends  while  it  paffed  along;  and  in 
its  further  progrefs  it  was  attended  with  the  ufual  effects 
of  a  whirlwind,  fuch  as  ftripping  off,  not  only  thatch,  but 
fheets  of  lead  from  the  tops  of  houfes,  and  tearing  off  the 
limbs  of  trees.  This  account  may  tend  to  confirm  the 
theory  here  offered,  as  it  proves  to  a  demonftration,  that 
the  water  fpout  therein  dcfcribed,  was  occafioned  by  a  pre- 
vious whirlwind  in  the  atmofphere  ;  which  whirKvind  was 
aUo  occafioned  by  the  rufliing  of  a  large  quantity  of  air, 
upwards,  from  all  quarters  near  the  furface  of  the  earth,, 
through  a  very  contraflied  aerial  paffage,  towards  the  top 
of  the  atmofphere;  the  narrownefs  of  which  paffage,  as 
determinable  from  the  effeds  obferved  in  its  progrefs,  iliews 
it  to  have  been  compreffed  upon  all  fides  by  a  general  con- 
flux of  oppofite  currents  of  air  ;  as  the  rufliing  of  the  air 
through  it  with  fuch  violence  from  beneath,  does,  that  the 
denfity  of  the  fluid  and  the  compreffive  force  of  the  cur- 
rents were  greateft  there.  The  afcending  air  carried  up 
the  water  with  it  through  the  fame  paffige  ;  not  by  any 
mechanical  operation  upon  it,  like  theadtionof  a  fcrewof 
any  kind  ;  but,  m.erely,  by  taking  off  the  preffure  of  the 
atmofphere  from  the  furface  of  the  water  dircdly  under 

it; 


WATER     SPOUTS.  117 

It;  •u'hence  the  water  mufl:  neceflarily  afcend,  as  in  any 
common  hydraulic  machine;  and  that  with  a  force  pro- 
portional to  the  prefTure  of  the  atmofphere  upon  the  fur- 
rounding  furface,  now  greatly  increafed  by  the  confluence 
of  thofe  currents. 

Before  I  clofe  this  fubjeifl,  I  fhall  juft  mention,  withont 
making  any  remarks,  the  efFedls  which  a  whirlwind  had 
amongd  a  number  of  fliocks  of  corn  at  IVarrington  in 
NoythmnptonJIjire^  Auguft  ift,  1694;  out  of  which  from 
eighty  to  a  hundred  Ihocks  were  carried  up  into  the  air, 
a  great  part  of  them  out  of  fight;  thefe  when  the  fury  of 
the  blaft  was  fpent,  fell  down  again  at  the  diftance  of  fomc 
miles  from  their  own  field.  The  account  of  this  whirl- 
wind immediately  precedes  the  article  laft  quoted  from  the 
P hilofophical  Tranfaftions .  Should  the  foregoing  theory  be 
adjudged  tenable,  it  will  render  very  credible  thofe  ftrange 
accounts  which  we  have  fometimes  had,  of  its  raining  tad- 
poles and  frogs,  which  have  been  found  upon  the  tops  of 
houfes  after  a  fliower;  and  even  fmall  fifhes,  a  fhower  of 
which  fell  at  Cranjlead  near  Wrotbmn  in  Kent,  anno  1696, 
on  the  Wednefday  before  Eafter  (Lowtborp's  abridgement  of 
Philofophical  Tranfidions,  vol.  II.  page  144.)  For  fhould 
one  of  thofe  aerial  pipes  pafs  over  a  frog  pond,  or  the 
fliallow  parts  of  a  fifh  pond,  the  fame  natural  caufe  which 
in  a  fpout  at  fea,  would  carry  up  the  water  from  the  ocean, 
would  alfo  carry  up  the  water  from  the  ponds  ciforefaid, 
together  with  the  contents;  whether  tadpoles,  frogs  or 
fifhes:  Thefe  mull  defcend  again  fomewhere;  and  where- 
ever  they  fell,  a  fhower  of  filhes,  frogs  or  tadpoles,  would 
be  the  confequence. 


J^xperimeyits. 


[     ii8     ] 


N°  IX. 


Experiments  on  Evaporation.,  and  Meteorological  Obferva- 
tions  made  at  Bradford  in  Neiv-Englatid,  in  1772,  by 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Williams,  A.  M. 


IN  making  experiments  on  the  quantity  of  water  that 
evaporated  in  the  year  1771,  the  method  I  ufed,  was 
to  fill  the  veflel  the  beginning  of  every  month:  In  the 
courfe  of  thefe  experiments,  I  obferved  that  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  month  when  the  tube  was  newly  filled,  it  ex- 
haufted  much  fafter  than  towards  the  latter  end,  when  one 
or  two  inches  of  the  water  was  evaporated ;  and  that  the 
quantity  of  evaporation  meafured  this  way,  came  out  lei's 
than  the  quantity  of  rain  that  fell  in  the  courfe  of  the 
year.  The  beginning  of  the  year  1772,  I  attempted  to 
examine  this  matter  more  carefully.  With  this  view  I 
made  the  following  experiments. 

EXPERIMENT    I. 

I  procured  two  cylindrical  vefiels  of  three  inches  diame- 
ter, and  fix  deep,  as  much  alike  as  they  could  be  made: 
One,  I  filled  with  water  as  I  had  done  in  1771,  once  a 
month ;  the  other,  with  the  fame  kind  of  water,  once  a 
week;  and  placed  them  about  fix  inches  apart,  in  fuch  a 
manner  as  to  be  expofed  to  the  wind,  and  fun,  but  cover- 
ed from  the  rain.  The  refult  was,  that  which  was  filled  once 
a  week,  exhaufted  about  one  third  more  than  the  other.  In 
January  and  February,  the  difl"erence  was  a  little  lefs;  in 
March  and  April,  it  was  a  little  more,  in  May,  the  lafl: 
month  in  which  I  compared  them,  the  evaporation  from 
the  former  was  6.35  inches ;  from  the  other  4. 1  o.     By  this 

experiment 


EXPERIMENTS  on   EVAPORATION.        119 

experiment  I  was  convinced  that  it  never  could  be  known 
with  much  accuracy  by  either  of  thefe  methods,  what 
quantity  of  water  does  really  evaporate  from  the  furfacc 
of  feas,  lakes  and  rivers.  For  in  the  one  cafe,  after 
about  an  inch  is  exhaufled  the  furface  of  the  water  is  too 
much  flieltered  from  the  wind,  which  greatly  retards  the 
evaporation.  In  the  other,  as  the  water  has  all  the  advan- 
tage of  the  wind,  and  is  heated  by  the  fun,  and  atmol- 
phere,  to  a  confiderable  greater  degree  than  the  water  in 
feas,  lakes  and  rivers,  the  quantity  of  evaporation  comes 
out  too  much.  And  therefore  nothing  certain  as  to  the 
real  quantity  of  evaporation  from  watery  fluids,  can  be  de- 
termined by  fuch  experiments,  however  carefully  they 
may  be  made. 

EXPERIMENT    II. 

To  meafure  with  more  certainty  the  real  quantity  of 
evaporation,  I  attempted  in  the  next  place  to  examine 
what  it  was  in  facl  from  the  furface  of  a  river.  This  ex- 
periment was  made  in  the  following  manner  :  I  filled  one 
of  the  veffels  with  river  water,  and  placed  it  as  before. 
The  other  I  fixed  in  the  centre  of  a  circular  board  of  three 
feet  diameter.  This  inftrument,  by  means  of  a  line 
faftened  to  a  tree  on  a  fmall  ifland,  was  placed  fo  as  to 
float  near  the  middle  of  Menimack  river.  To  defend  the 
tube  againft  the  dews  and  rain,  a  circular  piece  of  glafs, 
fifteen  inches  diameter,  was  fupported  by  wires  fixed  to 
the  board,  eight  inches  above  the  tube;  and  the  whole 
was  i'o  balanced  by  weights  as  to  leave  half  an  inch  of  the 
tube  above  the  furface  of  the  water.  When  thus  afloat  I 
filled  the  tube  with  water,  propofing  to  let  it  remain  in 
this  fituation  a  week,  to  fee  how  much  would  evaporate  in 
that  fpace  of  time.  After  repeated  difippointments  by 
the  rain,  wind  and  waves,  for  three  months,  I  at  lad  fuc- 
ceeded  in  trying  the  experiment  from  Aiigufi  26th,  to 
September  2d.     During  that  time  there  was  little  wind, 

mil 


I20     exper!ments  on  evaporation. 

ftill  water,  no  rain,  nor  any  thing  to  difturb  the  experi- 
ment. The  event  was,  that  at  the  end  of  the  feventh  day, 
the  tube  was  exhaurted  1.15  inch.  And  that  no  water 
had  got  into  the  tube  in  that  time,  I  was  certain  from  this 
circumftance ;  all  that  part  of  the  furface  of  the  board 
which  was  within  half  a  foot  of  the  tube  was  dry  every 
morning  and  evening.  In  the  other  tube,  the  evaporation 
in  the  fame  time  was  1.50  inch;  which  gives  ^^  decimal 
parts  of  an  inch  difference  between  the  real  evaporation 
from  the  furface  of  the  river,  and  that  of  the  water  v/hen 
fui'pended  in  the  air,  as  in  the  other  vefl'el.  All  the  eva- 
porations therefore  meafured  the  latter  of  thefe  ways, 
ought  to  be  diminifhed  in  this  proportion,  to  have  the  true 
quantity  fuch  as  it  is  in  nature. 

EXPERIMENT     III. 

Thefe  experiments  on  watery  fluids  put  me  upon  en- 
quiring what  the  evaporation  was  from  the  furface  of  the 
earth.  To  determine  this,  Sept.  14,  two  days  after  there 
had  been  any  rain,  I  funk  one  of  the  veifels  into  the  earth 
in  a  light  foil,  fo  as  to  take  up  all  the  earth  contained  in 
a  fpace  equal  to  the  contents  of  the  veflel.  Elaving  care- 
fully weighed  the  veflel  with  the  earth  it  contained,  I  fix- 
ed it  in  the  ground  in  a  plain  open  field,  where  it  was  ex- 
pofed  to  the  fun  and  wind,  but  defended  from  the  dew  and 
rain,  as  in  the  former  experiment.  At  the  end  ofj'e'uen 
Jays  I  took  it  up,  and  weighing  it  again  found  it  had  loft 
783  grains,  troy.  The  diameter  of  the  veflel  being  three 
inches,  its  furface  exprefl^ed  in  whole  numbers  was  equal 
to  nine  fquare  inches.  Dividing  the  number  of  grains  that 
evaporated,  783,  by  the  number  of  fquare  inches  contain- 
ed in  the  furface  of  the  veflTel,  9,  we  fhall  have  87  grains 
for  the  evaporation  from  one  fquare  inch  ;  and  this,  (af- 
fumlng  254  grains  as  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  water) 
will  give  -j-Vtt  parts  of  an  inch,  as  the  depth  of  water  that 
paflTed  ofi^  by  evaporation.     In  the  other  vellel  filled  with 

water, 


EXPERIMENTS   on   EVAPORATION.       121 

water,  and  placed  as  before,  the  evaporation  in  the  fame 
time  was  exadly  one  inch.  If  this  experiment  may  be 
fuppofed  to  reprefent  the  operations  of  nature,  the  con- 
clulion  will  be,  that  the  evaporation  from  the  furface  of 
the  earth,  is  but  little  more  than  one  third  of  what  the 
evaporation  is  from  the  furface  of  water. 

EXPERIMENT     IV. 

Another  thing  I  had  in  view  was  to  know  what  the  eva- 
poration was  from  plants  and  trees.  In  order  to  make  an 
eftimate  of  this,  Augujl  20,  I  took  up  four  different  forts 
of  plants,  with  as  much  of  the  earth  adjoining  to  each  as 
wholly  covered  their  roots.  Each  plant,  with  the  earth 
thus  about  it,  being  fix  inches  fquare,  I  put  into  a  wooden 
box  of  the  fame  form  and  fize.  The  boxes  were  covered 
with  thin  lead,  well  cemented  at  the  joints,  that  nothing 
might  evaporate  that  way  ;  and  had  two  apertures  at  the 
top  ;  one,  to  admit  the  ftem  of  the  plant,  the  other,  that 
the  plant  might  be  fupplied  with  water,  but  which  was 
kept  flopped  when  not  in  ufe.  Having  taken  the  weight 
of  each,  I  placed  them  in  the  ground  that  they  might  have 
the  fame  degree  of  heat  as  before  ;  leaving  as  much  of  the 
plant  above  the  furface  of  the  earth,  as  when  it  was  in  its 
natural  ftate.  In  this  fituation  I  added  known  quantities 
of  water,  aiming  to  put  in  from  time  to  time  as  much  as 
I  thought  they  would  throw  off.  At  the  end  of  thirty 
days  I  took  them  up,  taking  an  account  of  their  weight  as 
before,  and  alio  that  of  each  plant.  The  refult  is  expref- 
fed  in  the  following  particulars  ; 


w.  federal  forts 

Weight  of  the 

Water  evaporat- 

of plants. 

plants. 

ed  in  30  days. 

Gmins. 

C. rains. 

Apple  tree,     - 

-          -         23         -        - 

-         -          I27I 

Alder  tree. 

-           -         30         -        - 

-         -         2593 

Spear  mint,     - 

-       -       22       -       - 

-        -         5186 

Clover,     - 

-      -     43     -     - 

-        -         IS94 

Q. 

In 

122     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

In  this  experiment,  the  evaporation  from  thefe  four  very 
Tmall  plants  was  10944  grains;  amounting  to  about  43 
cubic  inches  of  water,  in  thirty  days.  The  evaporation 
in  the  fame  time  from  the  veffel  fufpended  in  the  air,  was 
4.25  inches  in  depth  :  The  quantity  therefore  thrown  off 
by  the  plants,  was  more  than  what  the  evaporation  would 
have  been  from  a  watery  furface,  of  ten  inches  fquare.  If 
this  way  of  reafoning  may  be  applied  to  fields  covered  with 
trees,  grafs,  and  other  vegetables,  the  inference  will  be, 
that  the  evaporation  for  feveral  months  is  greater  from 
them,  than  it  is  from  equal  areas  of  the  furface  of  water. 

METEOROLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS  made 
at  Bradford  in  1772. 

THE  inftruments  ufed  in  the  following  obfervations, 
the  times  at  which  they  were  taken,  and  the  method  in 
which  they  are  fet  dovs^n,  were  defcribed  in  the  paper  fent 
to  the  Society  lafl:  year.  With  regard  to  thofe  of  the  pre- 
fent  year  the  following  things  are  to  be  obferved  :  The 
barometrical  obfervations  till  Nov.  6,  muft  be  viewed  as 
imperfc£l,  being  taken  with  a  barometer  of  too  fmall  a 
bore.  From  the  6th  of  November  to  the  end  of  the  year, 
they  are  very  exa£t ;  being  taken  by  a  very  good  barome- 
ter made  by  Nairne.  In  meafuring  the  quantity  of  eva- 
poration, I  ufed  a  tube  three  inches  diameter  and  fix  deep  ; 
which  was  filled  once  a  week.  The  rain  was  meafured  by 
a  tube  of  the  fame  form  and  fize.  In  all  other  refpeds, 
the  fame  method  was  obferved  as  in  the  meteorological 
obfervations  of  1771. 

The  obfervations  taken  by  the  barometer  and  thertnome" 
ter  are  fet  down  in  three  colunins  ;  the  firft  column  con- 
tains the  obfervations  taken  ufually  about  6"  A.  M.  the 
fecond  at  noon,  and  the  third  at  c)*"  p.  M.  The  other  co- 
lumns give  the  general  ftate  of  the  wuids  and  weather  of 
the  day, 

J  A  N  U- 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     123 


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udy  day  ;   rain  i 

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to.      Aurora  lior, 

udy,  dull  weath 

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to. 

to. 

to. 

udy  day ;  fnow 

ing  clouds  with 

Id  pleafant  day. 

to. 

iw  A.  M.  clear 

ar  bright  day. 

■udy,  with  fome 

ludy  dull  weathe 

rm  of  fnow,  all 

r  weather. 

ludy  dull  day. 

■udy,  with  brigh 

11  milling  day. 

e  pleafant  day. 

to. 

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to,  with  rain. 

r  and  clear. 

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udy  dull  weathe 

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.  toN. 
.  W. 

E. 

little, 
itto. 
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itto. 
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F  E  B  R  U- 


124    METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


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Fair  A.  M;  cloudy  P.  M. 

Fine  bright  day. 

Clo.  day ;  hea.  ftor.  of  fn.  &  hail  in  the  nig. 

Dull  cloudy  day. 

Flying  clouds,  with  bright  intervals. 

Fine  bright  day.     Aiir.  Bor>  in  the  night. 

Fine  pleafant  weather. 

Cloudy  dull  day. 

Rainy  A.  M;  cloudy  P.  M.  bright  even. 

Fair  and  clear. 

Ditto. 

Fair  day. 

Fair  day;  cloudy  evening. 

Snow  A.  M;  clear  P.  M. 

Clo.  A.  M ;  fn.  with  ra.  P.  M.  &  in  thenig. 

Fair  pleafant  day. 

Flying  clouds,  with  bright  intervals. 

Fine  pleafant  day. 

Ditto. 

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Fine  pleafant  day. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

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E.  freih. 

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N.  W.  frelh. 

N.  Wi  little. 

S.  W.  to  W. 

N.  toE.  S.E. 

S.  to  W.  frefli. 

N.  W.  frefli. 

S.  W-  to  W.  frefh. 

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N.  W.  toN.  E. 

N.  to  W. 

W.  to  E. 

S.  W.  little. 

W.  to  S.  W.  frelh. 

S.  W.  little. 

S.  W. 

Ditto. 

W.  S.  W. 

Ditto,  frefh. 

W. 

S.  W.  to  E. 

N.  E.  to  S.  ftrong. 

W.  to  N.  ftrong. 

W. 

S.  W.  httle. 

Ditto,  frefli. 

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MARCH, 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     125 


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126     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


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128     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


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CN(sIc?sc5'o'^'>CNCNC>.C>.OsC>.CsCnCnOsC>CNCnC>.C\C>.CvCN^ 
C^CtCl'-^rr;c»C^C*r*C<HC^r*C»MiSOc<C»WC<« 


<T3C^clc<c*c*c<Wr*e^r»rtc»tSc(r(r«wc»ciMrttlrtclr»    — 


_((.(  M|Hw|ts-|w-|'t>-'|c*-1-'«  >»'H  mI'v-h|c»  .     HlrtHt*      MCr<In       HtlMlrt 

rj-  ur>  r^  O  *H   O  so   »ooa  00  r-*  ^"^  sons  ^r>^2^'*'^^'^^^^'^^*^'^'^  oooo 
CsCNCNO    O    O    C\OsCnC\OsCSC\CvCSOsCNCNC\CsCsOsCNCNC^:^<>.^:^Cs 


^& 


JULY, 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     129 


!^      (^' 


;  -5  ^         .3 


g  =  .s 

2-S  g 

rS  CJ  P  Q   ; 


■a  .,,•  ^  c    .  a 


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a 

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f^  1^  c  £  -J^^  S 


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60 


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3  3 


■-  3  .5  -5 .5  's  -S—  °  '5 


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r--  t--  r^  r>oo  00  t-.oo  00  r>.  r^  c^  c^  r^  r-*oo  c^  1^00  r>  *^  t-^  r^,  t-*oo  00  00  0\  Ovoo   t^ 


^  ^  i^n  c^  >o  ^o  ^"-1  ■^^  O 


O    CT^  Os'O  >0  'O   ^  OS  w    0\  r^^  -o   O   t-^«o   ^  PO  f^  t^ 

OsOsO\0\OnC?\CTvOsCNO    O    O    0\O\0nCN3sOs0\0    ^OvO\dsc5'c^i^^CN  ^OO* 


c4 
iA      bo 

J    to 


C^NO       I- 


5  ^H 


2  s> 


6^5^  = 


H|ciM|r»                        M|-+                       hW                               m|c<        M|HM|rt        Hr*                M|f*H|HHf* 
•f  ^  rj-   -^xO  ^  00    fcn'O  NC    M    0    CV  OsO  SO  mD  00    O  i-.    M    Q    •^'O  OO    O  00  OO    i<-)  TfOO 

Q 

M    c^   d  Tf  *osO    r-00    OS  O   •-«    rt    "^  'J-  v^«g3    r^oO    Os  0    «    rt   r^  -*  »^0   r-^OO    O  O   t- 

AUGUST, 


I30 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


O 
< 


^    bo 


^^ 


6^* 


u        S 


■=  .  &•■= 


£  a- 


•  <i  ~  -a"  2  s    .  "S.  .  -i  ci.^  Mi's.  . 
>,  c  "  '-  o  •-  *^  ■-  "  ^  ^'<^-"-"'ri  ^-2  =  -  ■-  -  ■- 'rt  ^  S  >:•  ^ -^  ■"  •" -^ 


i  o  o  o 


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_,.        .„„„  -■  ti.Jit:? 

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-  r-^  so    'O'O  \0  so   r^  r>.\o  nO   r--  r-^  r-\^  \^ 


t-^  r-^  !>.  r^  r^cxj  oo  oo~^t^>o  oo  t^oo  oo  oo  r^so  so  no  -o  «^  r^oo  soso  r^»>.r^i^r^(^ 


t-jvO    »^  ^  (^  w    »^nO  oo    i^r^rlO    "^^O    »oO    Or^    ""Ort    t^sO  00    ^  ti    f^  r^    r^    rf 
>0^»OsO*0   r-.r-.r~  t-..>o  sO  »0   r^  r^  i^  r..\o  <3   »^nO  "O  "O  nO  "O   »o*0   t^  (^so  '«0  sc 


m 


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rt  rt  so   <^  "^  t^so  so   1^  M-  ij-i  c*  »o  i^so   »-.>o   o  *o  f*  O   -^so   d  CO  o   n  sc 

Os  O"  O"  O"  CN  CN  CX  C^  CN  CNOcToo"  C?\C>CNdsCNCNC?sCKO"cN<:>.  o'oo'oo'  t>Oo"  o'  €5"  Cs 


p*  1^  O   'O  o 


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M     M 

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C*    r^  rr. 

SEP 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     131 


CO 


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tS  u  Oi  £  Q  Q  l2 


^3 '5   :'s  c.ti.t;-;5  ri -g  .s  .^  .t:  .^ 
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« 

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t-^-O  ^0  OQ    r-NQ  -O  O    I--  »o  *^  '^  "^"O  ^O    »0  "--l^O  NO  ^O  SO  >0  -O    "TiO    »^  »OVD  'O    " 


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OCTO- 


132     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


Pi 

W 

o 

U 

o 


d 

_o  o 


bo 

■5 

u 

■s 


S 

ol 


Ti      O 


*  '^    jj    C 


-JUS 

si 

•        .  u 
=     .  [1,'C 

2  *-  c  -^ 

S  S   ^  -g 

^  S  -s  •" 

j3   ^<5-o 


<-s 


Z3    4^   *j 

3  c.ti._  ^  „  - 
Q  U  Q  Q  li.  O  !/:■ 


QQ 


Q  iS  S  S  'o  Q  Q  '(5  O  E  o  U  i2  E  Q  3  '£  U  O  P  o  3 


^«^ 


^£     <S 


VD  fi         C 


O     O    ^  [t} 


tiii    .1^    .lit;*-'    -b-^ 


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;^^i55c/i;s2i5(5S^co^5Qw^>ui2;^^^^y^«zZc/5w:5jrt 


§r 


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t<  O  r-so  r<  c*r»':J-"**^'r3rj-rtrtiH  i^ 


•  r*  fo  «    »*  -^  't  f^"0    r*   r»    w    ^ 


Cl    c^  ^  ^OO    r-sOO    Os  O    M    r»    i-O  -I-  > 


NOVEM- 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     133 


Pi 

> 

o 


e 

o 


&    .-fl    rt 


^-s- 


i  !^  >» 


o   o  o  o  c  o  i^ 


'  Ji  "o  _w 


rt  "r  .t:  .t; . 


-  2  2  —  2  ~  =  — 

.ii  .t: .-  3  .- -q  _2  "B  .S  _2  coo 


t;  o 


^    -    ^ 


-     —     --     _j-5.2^-'*;      2."         " 

'yi  «  Z  m  2  Q  tn  ?  OT  en  Z  5  en  Z  en  ;S  q  en  '(5  ^  2  >  ^  >  en  oo  2  ^  tLJ  >    S  S 


3    , 


r^  f^  0.^0  »0    M    in  r--  fi  r*-,so    rt    CSWOO    c<    r^    t-.oo    <^>nM    GaosS    ^m    noe 


OOt^OP<r*'^»^00«0  »^00    to  •-<  so    M    r^OO    ro  (*1  r^  r»    rl    rv  p^oo    r^oo    r^    n 


r-^>0   r-*  *osO   O    O    "^  "tOO   O    O   mOO   m    ^^to^^'^^'l'^rotf)  O^^  -O   O    t'-'O 

cNCNoicj^c^d^d^o'cj^oso  o  ;>"CNo  o  o  cTo  d"o"d'o"d'c>.CTsc^c"osr^ 


5'c>"c5'ddd'do"dd'c>c>^d" 

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2  ^ 


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HH 

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DECEM- 


134    METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


<N 


pi, 


5     t- 


•5  ■•>°  -*  *  -S 
a  ■•  a;  !»-  3 

•S  "?!  ^  <    3 


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Ml-*  W|M  «-'W  M]Ct  Mlc^Hl^-IH       ■      •-'Irt  iHlC* 


o  o 


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CN'N'5i'>-No"oCN<*N^o'o"cNo"o0^o"d'crr\o"-vrN'>o"cvc>iCT^ 
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M|e  hW      Hf^  f*Im-KHt*  Mc*      Kc*      Hr* 

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rN'>->'v'?NO"o  rscNCNr>,o"c>.rNo'o'o  Q  o'o'  -^O  CKC  S>.  O  (^  S^  Cs  <:>■  • 
n    M    ol    c»    r*    r^  'C  ci    (S    M    ri    r^  r>    c*    f".  "".  f".  c<,  c^  n  c<    (•".  W    ct  r*    '*:  r<    r<    c»    cs    c 


ta    f^  •+  i^-O    1--CO    On  I- 


rt    c<i  rj-  i-jNO    r-&D    Cn  O    ' 


The 


INIETEOROLOGICAL  OESERVATIONS.     135 

The  greatefl:  height  of  the  barometer  this  year,  was  on 
the  17th  ot  November:  The  mercury  was  then  at  30.5 1: 
inches,  The  Icaft  height  w  as  28.24.  inches  on  Augult  the 
26th.  The  thermometer  on  the  29th  of  July,  rofe  to 
96^4;  on  February  the  13th,  it  flood  at  3°  :  The  former 
was  the  greateft,  the  latter  its  leaft  height.  The  quantity 
of  rain  that  fell  in  the  year  was  36.30  inches.  The 
quantity  of  evaporation,  meafured  by  hlling  the  veflel 
once  a  week,  came  out  42.65  inches. 

It  is  however  to  be  obferved  that  different  methods  of 
meafuring  the  evaporation,  will  lead  to  different  conclufi- 
ons.  It  was  becaufe  the  tube  was  of  too  fmall  a  diameter, 
and  not  filled  often  enough,  that  the  quantity  of  evapora- 
tion came  out  fo  fmall  in  1771.  The  method  of  making 
the  experiments  being  altered,  the  evaporation  turns  out 
very  different  in  i  772.  If  the  experiments  could  be  made 
on  the  lurface  of  a  watery  fluid  the  refult  v\ould  determine 
the  quantity  of  evaporation,  with  much  greater  certainty 
and  accuracy,  than  can  ever  be  done  by  means  of  a  vcffel 
fufpended  in  the  air. 

OBSERVATIONS   in    1773. 

The  quantity  of  rain  which  fell  in 

January,  was  1,95 

February,  ^^95 

March,  1,75 

April,  1,90 

May,  2,10 

June,  1,70 

July,  1,00 

Auguft,  4,15 

September,  ^505 

OGober,  4,10 

November,  1,90 

December,  4500 

T  2  To 


136     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

To  meafure  the  quantity  o^  rain,  I  fixed  a  tube  about 
three  inches  diameter,  in  Tuch  a  manner  as  to  receive  the 
rain  as  it  tell;  which  I  mealured  as  foon  as  it  was  over, 
and  added  up  the  whole  of  each  month  together.  In  this 
account  \.\\q  fnotu  and  hail  are  included:  Thefe  were 
meafured  by  taking  up  in  the  tube  all  the  fiiow  or  hail  that 
fell  on  a  fpace  equal  to  its  furface,  and  then  melting  it. 
The  method  of  meafuring  the  quantity  of  evaporation  by 
a  tube  fufpended  in  the  air  being  uncertain  and  inaccu- 
rate, thofe  obfervations  are  omitted. 

The  greateft  height  of  the  barometer  this  year,  was  on 
the  2 2d  and  23d  of  February:  The  mercury  at  12'' on 
each  of  thefe  days,  was  at  30.6  inches.  The  leaft  height 
was  28.61  inches,  on  December  26th  at  12''.  The  ther- 
mometer on  the  8th  of  July,  at  12^1,  rofe  to  gG^'^r  '•  On 
February  the  22d,  at  81  A.  M.  it  flood  at  9°4-  below  o. 
At  both  thefe  times  the  thermometer  was  hung  in  the 
open  air,  in  a  fhade  :  The  former  was  the  greateft,  the 
latter  its  leaft  height.  The  quantity  of  rain  this  year 
amounted  to  26,55  inches. 

On  the  I  7th  of  July  there  was  an  Aurora,  uncommon 
in  this  refped,  that  there  were  feveral  appearances  of  it  in 
the /outh :  The  firft  of  thefe  was  about  9".  It  began  about 
20^"  above  the  horizon  and  inftantly  fpread  itfelf  in  a  ho- 
rizontal diretftion  to  tne  diftance  of  30^^  each  way  from 
the  meridian.  For  the  fpace  of  one  quarter  of  an  hour 
there  were  five  fuch  appearances,  all  in  the  fouth  as  before; 
their  duration  was  not  more  than  half  a  minute,  and  their 
colour  a  pale  light,  exactly  like  that  of  the  Aurora  in  the 
north. 

There  was  alfo  a  remarkable  Hurricane  this  year, 
the  effeds  of  which  were  principally  felt  at  Salisburvy 
Ainesbtiry,  and  Haverhill.  Thefe  towns  lie  on  Merrimack 
river,  on  the  north  fide  ;  Salifbury  being  the  place  where 
the  river  empties  itfelf  into  the  ocean. 

The 


REMARKABLE   HURRICANE.        137 

The  hurricane  came  on  Augiijl  14th,  1773.  Its  rife 
was  very  ludden,  and  without  any  previous  uncommon 
appearance  in  the  Iky,  or  other  fymptom  of  its  approach. 
In  the  morning  there  was  a  light  breeze  of  wind  at  the 
eaft,  attended  with  plentiful  fhowers.  At  7''  \-  the  wind 
veered  about  to  fouth-eaft,  where  it  became  a  brillc  gale. 
In  about  two  minutes,  it  got  into  the  fouth-weft,  and  be- 
came on  a  ludden  very  violent.  From  thence  in  about  two 
minutes  more,  it  ihifted  to  weft-north-weft,  and  then  fud- 
denly  died  away  to  a  moderate  breeze.  While  the  wind 
was  thus  changing,  it  feemed  to  blow  in  every  direftion  ; 
the  gufts  became  very  violent,  and  formed  many  little 
whirlwinds  all  around,  attended  with  a  very  heavy  fliow- 
er  of  rain,  and  an  uncommon  darknefs. 

At  the  place  where  Salisbury  and  Amesbury  join,  the 
'Violence  of  the  hurricane  was  very  great.  Its  firft  appear- 
ance was  on  Merrimack  river.  At  the  time  when  the  wind 
was  veering  to  the  fouth-eaft,  its  waters  feemed  to  be  in- 
ftantly  thrown  into  a  violent  agitation ;  and  came  rolling 
from  the  eaft  as  if  they  would  have  overflowed  the  banks. 
The  hurricane  immediately  ftruck  the  fliore  at  Salifbury- 
Point  and  Amefbury,  levelling  before  it  feveral  well  built 
houfes  almort  new,  unroofing,  twifting,  and  wrecking 
others  ;  and  thus  tearing  down,  or  ftiattering  moft  of  the 
buildings  that  were  in  its  way.  Several  buildings  were 
fliattered  to  pieces,  and  others  removed  in  an  inftant.  A 
fail-maker's  loft  in  which  a  mail  was  fitting,  was  carried 
away  and  dilperfed  in  a  moment ;  the  unhappy  man  be- 
ing found  fenfelefs  at  the  diftance  of  94  feet  from  the  place 
where  the  loft  ftood.  A  large  oak  poft  14  feet  in  length 
and  1 1  inches  in  diameter,  was  taken  up  and  carried  by 
the  wind  138  feet.  Two  new  velfels  of  90  tons  burthen, 
were  lifted  up  from  the  blocks  and  carried  to  the  diftance 
of  22  feet.  And  a  large  bundle  of  Ihingles  w-as  taken  up 
from  the  earth  and  throwm  near  330  feet,  in  a  direftion 
contrary  to  that  of  the  poft;  and  veilels.     The  trees  around 

were 


ic;8         REMARKABLE    HURRICANE. 


J 


were  torn  up,  the  fences  were  thrown  down,  fcattered  or 
carried  off,  and  the  various  kinds  of  lumber  that  lay  dil- 
perfed  on  the  fliore,  were  whirled  about  in  different  direc- 
tions, and  to  different  diftances.  Some  houfes  and  vcfTels 
that  feemed  the  moll:  expofed  to  the  wind,  fuffered  nothing 
at  al! ;  and  others  that  feemed  to  be  the  leaft  expofed,  were 
much  damaged  or  carried  off.  The  number  of  buildings 
that  fuffered  was  about  120:  And  though  many  perfons 
were  carried  to  I'ome  diilance,  and  others  much  hurt,  be- 
ing covered  in  the  ruins  or  in  the  cellars  of  their  houfes, 
no  lives  were  loft.  At  the  place  where  this  deftrudion 
was  done,  the  buildings  were  pretty  thick,  amounting  to 
about  150.  The  general  direction  oi  the  hurricane  was 
from  eaft-fouth-eaft  to  weft-north-weft.  Its  extent^  in 
width,  was  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ;  in  length,  about  a 
mile  and  three  quarters  :  And  its  duration^  not  more  than 
four  minutes  from  the  time  it  firft  began  till  all  became 
flill  and  quiet  again. 

At  the  fame  time  confiderable  damage  was  done  at  Ha- 
'vcrhilU  ten  miles  higlier  up  the  river.  There  the  hurri- 
cane came  on  from  the  iouth-wefi:.  Its  firft  effedl:  was  the 
deftruftion  of  a  large  new  birn.  The  barn  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  hay  and  grain,  w^ts  cruflied  down  in  an 
inftant.  The  hay,  boards  and  fli ingles  were  fcattered 
round  to  all  points  of  the  compafs,  to  the  diftance  of 
four  or  five  rods  from  the  place  where  the  barn  ftood ; 
and  fome  of  them  were  carried  to  the  diftance  of  three 
miles  north-eaft.  A  large  dwelling  houfe  at  eight  or  ten 
rods  diftance,  was  much  damaged  ;  every  board  and  rib 
was  torn  from  the  roof,  and  the  chimney  wrecked  to  the 
foundation.  Five  barns  were  almoft  wholly  deffroyed, 
and  a  number  of  houf  s  and  other  buildings  were  much 
damaged.  In  fome,  the  windows  and  doors  \\  ere  drove 
in;  in  01  hers,  the  boards  and  fliingles  \^  ere  ripped  off"  and 
fcattered  in  all  directions.  The  ilone  walls  in  fame  places 
were  almoft  levelled  with  the  ground;  and  the  trees  to  the 

number 


REMARKABLE    HURRICANE.         139 

number  of  five  liiirdrcd  were  fwept  oflF  in  the  fpace  of  a 
mile.  The  general  direction  oi  (\\t  hurricane  was  diffe- 
rent here  fio:n  w  hat  it  was  in  Salifbury,  beinj,  from  foutli- 
\A  e(l  to  north-eaft.  Its  extent  was  about  three  miles  in 
length,  and  half  a  mile  in  width :  Its  duration  not  more 
than  four  miiuues.  The  'violence  of  the  hurricane  \^as 
probably  as  great  at  Haverhill,  as  it  was  at  Salifoury  :  But 
as  it  paifed  half  a  mile  abov-  or  nortii-weiT:  of  the  centre 
of  the  town,  w  here  the  buildings  were  not  very  thick,  the 
damage  done  by  it  was  much  lefs. 

To  what  extent  the  difturbance  in  the  atmofphcre  readi- 
ed, cannot  be  exactly  determined.  Though  it  did  not 
form  whirlwinds  of  fuch  iorce  as  to  produce  any  remark- 
.able  effeds  at  any  other  places  but  thofe  mentioned  above, 
it  evidently  extended  to  all  the  towns  on  Merrimack  river, 
from  the  mouth  to  lome  miles  above  Haverhill.  In  all  the 
adjacent  towns,  the  fudden  change  and  different  direftions 
of  the  wind,  with  their  eifefts  in  twifting  the  trees,  corn, 
&c.  were  obferved  to  the  dirtance  of  fix  or  eight  miles 
on  each  fide  of  the  river.  And  yet  there  did  not  feem  to 
be  any  very  great  alterations  in  the  ivei^ht  or  teniperature 
of  the  atmolphere,  at  any  confiderable  dillance  from  the 
place  V.  here  the  winds  were  lo  violent.  At  Bradford 
oppofite  to  Haverhill,  and  not  more  than  a  mile  from 
the  place  w^hcre  the  damage  was  done,  the  barometer  at 
7*"  A.  M.  flood  at  29,') '  inches.  At  the  time  of  the  hur- 
ricane it  fuddenly  fell  to  29,6'  ;  and  juPc  after  to  29,5', 
which  was  its  leafi:  height  that  day.  By  noon  it  rofe  to 
29,7',  and  at  9''  p.  m.  it  got  up  to  29,8  ;  ;  alterations  very 
common  in  this  part  of  America.  Fare7ihdit\  thermome- 
ter in  the  morning  was  at  74°  ;  at  noon  and  9"  p.  m.  it  was 
one  degree  lower  :  1  he  wind  continuing  very  moderate 
between  well  and  north-welt  from  8*'  A.  M.  till  night. 

From  thefe  phenomena  we  may  form  fome  probable 
conjeSures  as  to  the  caufe  and  origin  of  the  hurricane. 
"What  occafioned  fuch  a  violent  irregular  commotion  in  the 

air« 


I40        REMARKABLE    HURRICANE, 

air,  was  probably  the  great  rarefaHion  of  it.  The  wea- 
ther, for  a  week  before,  had  been  uncommonly  hot,  and 
the  wind  conftantly  at  fouth  or  fouth-weft.  The  air  next 
to  the  furface  of  the  earth  muft  therefore  have  been  great- 
ly heated  and  rarefied ;  and  probably  was  become  fpecifi- 
cally  lighter  than  the  air  in  the  higher  regions.  The  con- 
fequence  would  be  that  the  lighter  rarefied  air  would  al- 
cend,  while  the  heavier  condenfed  air  would  defcend;  and 
in  this  way  the  erjuUibrhan  of  the  air  would  be  deflroyed: 
To  the  place  where  the  equilibrium  of  the  air  was  thus  bro- 
ken, the  adjacent  air  would  inftantly  flow  on  every  fide  as  to 
a  common  centre;  forming  eddies  and  whirlpools,  and  thus 
afluming  a  circular  inotion.  And  this  it  is  probable  gave  rife 
to  thofe  fudden  changes,  different  dlredions,  and  violent 
gufts  of  the  wind.  1  he  place  where  this  circular  motion 
began,  feems  to  have  been  in  the  upper  re;Aion  of  the  air, 
at  fome  diftance  from  the  furface  of  the  earth;  for  feveral 
of  the  efl^efis  of  the  hurricane  bear  the  marks  of  a  dejcent. 
At  the  place  where  it  firft  ftruck  Merrimack  river,  it  hove 
lip  the  waters,  as  if  fome  great  force  had  been  imprelfed 
upon  its  furface:  And  at  Haverhill,  where  it  was  firfl;  felt 
it  crufhed  a  barn  to  pieces  as  if  fome  immenfe  weight  had 
fallen  upon  it.  When  the  defcending  air  and  whirl  came 
to  the  earth,  being  flopped  in  its  defcent  it  feems  to  have 
inftantly  fpread  itfelf  in  to  a  larger  circle  or  compafs,  blow- 
ing every  way  from  the  centre.  And  hence  the  pieces  of 
the  barm  that  was  crufhed  down  by  it,  became  fcattered 
to  the  diftance  of  four  or  five  rods  all  around.  A  defcent 
of  the  air  in  one  place  would  be  immediately  fucceeded 
with  an  afcentoi  it  in  another.  And  thus  the  whirlwind, 
where  the  air  was  defcending  cruflied  down  the  buildings 
before  it:  But  where  the  air  was  afcending,  lifted  up,  un- 
roofed, or  carried  them  away;  fliattering  and  throwing  off 
the  materials  thus  carried  up,  as  they  came  to  the  extre- 
mity of  the  whirl,  in  tangent  lines,  to  diiferent  diftan- 
ces  and  in  all  diredlions.  Befides  this  circular,  the  whirl- 
winds 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSEPvVATIONS.     14! 

winds  had  alfo  a  progreffinje  motion.  Had  the  different 
winds  by  which  the  whirlwinds  were  formed  been  of 
equal  violence,  the  whirlwinds  would  have  been  ftation- 
ary  confifting  only  of  a  circular  motion  ;  but  being  of 
unequal  violence,  the  whirlwinds  had  a  progreflive  moti- 
on, proceeding  in  different  directions  at  different  places, 
according  to  the  direftion  of  the  ftrongefl:  wind. 

Thejumf7ier  preceding  this  hurricane  had  been  in  fome 
refpedts  different  from  what  is  common  in  this  part  of  the 
country.  There  had  been  an  uncommon  drought  for  two 
months  before,  which  was  no  where  more  fevere  than  in 
the  towns  upon  the  river ;  and  in  no  fummer  for  feveral 
years,  have  we  had  fo  much  hot  weather.  This  circum- 
ftance  is  agreeable  to  the  prefumption  of  theory ;  for,  if 
whirlwinds  and  hurricanes  are  derived  from  the  great  ra- 
refa£lion  of  fome  part  of  the  atmofphere,  it  might  be  ex- 
pected that  the  times  in  which  they  would  happen,  would 
be  in  the  moft  calm,  or  hot  weather. 


~N°  X. 

A  Letter  from  J.  Madison,  Efquire^  /(?  D.  R  i  t- 
TENHOUSJi,   Ej'quire, 


William  and  Mary  College,  Virginia,  November,  1771). 
DEAR    SIR, 

AGREEABLY  to  promife,  I  now  tranfmit  you  a 
feries  of  oblervations  upon  our  climate.  They 
comprehend  an  entire  year,  and  part  of  the  fuccecding. 
I  thought  once  of  fending  you  only  a  mean  of  the  obfcr- 
vations  for  each  month,  but  as  it  was  a  part  of  our  natu- 
ral hiftory,  which  has  never  yet  been  made  public,  I  have 
therefore  fent  a  copy  of  the  journal.     Some  lingular  cir- 

U  cumliances 


142     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

cumHances  too  attending  the  barometer  I  thought  deferved 
to  be  particularly  noted,  which  could  not  have  been  done 
had  the  tiril:  idea  been  adopted.  For  the  obfervations 
upon  the  barometer  not  only  fhew  us  the  different 
ftates  of  the  atmofphere,  but,  perhaps,  may  throw  far- 
ther light  upon  the  true  caufe  of  the  Aurora  Forealis. 
The  fa£t  is,  that  a  fail  of  the  barometer  always  fucceeds 
that  phenomenon.  The  frequency  of  its  appearance 
lately,  gave  me  an  opportunity  of  obfervlng  this  effect 
at  different  times.  It  has  for  fome  time  been  fuppofed 
(after  Dr.  Franklin  had  firft  given  rife  to  the  opinion) 
to  be  an  eledtrical  appearance  ;  and  I  think,  the  levity  of 
the  atmofphere,  as  proved  by  the  barometer,  adds  great 
weight  to  that  fuppofition  :  fince  it  is  well  known  to  every 
eledirician,  that  a  rarefa£lion  of  the  air,  in  our  experi- 
ments, will  always  produce  fimilar  appearances.  One 
circumftance  indeed  was  obfervable,  that  a  change  of  wea- 
ther, to  wet,  generally  fucceeded ;  but  as  this  effefl  was  not 
fo  conftant,  it  was  not  much  attended  to.  But  the  baro- 
ineter  by  fliewing  that  the  atmofphere  is  a£lually  lighter, 
and  of  confcquence  more  rarefied  at  the  lime  of  fuch  ap- 
pearances than  at  others,  evinces  at  leaft,  that  it  is  in  a 
ftate  the  moft  likely  to  exhibit  them ;  it  is  to  be  obferved 
alfo,  that  the  greateft  fall  of  the  barometer  is  not  prior  to, 
but  always  fucceeds  this  appearance;  fhewing  that  the  ra- 
refadion  firft  begins  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  atmofphere. 
It  is  remarkable  that  the  range  of  the  barometer  was 
not  more  than  one  inch  and  a  tenth  throughout  the  whole 
year,  nor  do  I  remember  ever  to  have  feen  a  greater  dif- 
ference at  any  time  not  included  in  the  journal  ;  whilfl:  we 
fee  in  other  countries,  the  atmofphere  undergoing  changes 
io  great  as  to  effect  a  difference  of  three  or  four  inches. 
Whence  is  it  then  that  we  are  expofed  to  more  violent 
ftorms  of  wind  andrain  ?  Perhaps  indeed  the  changes  here, 
though  not  fo  great,  may  be  more  fudden,  of  which  fom^e 
remarkable  inftances  may  be  feen  in  the  journal. 

Our 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     143 

Our  coldeft  winds,  as  well  as  the  moft  violent,  are  the 
north-well.     The  fouth  and  fouth-weft  winds  are  the  hot- 
teft,  though  the  fenlations  of  heat  to  which  we  are  expof- 
ed,  do  not  correfpond  to  the  different  degrees  marked  by 
the  thermometer,  as  they  depend  much  upon  a  current  of 
air  with  which  we  are  generally  favoured  about  the  hotted: 
time  of  the  day,  and  copious  fweating.     I  do  not  recolledl 
ever  to  have  feen  the  thermometer  here  at  more  than  95, 
though  Dr.  Franklin  mentions  that  in  June  1750,  it  flood 
at    100  in  the  fliade  at  Philadelphia,  when  he  ohferves, 
"  I  expeded  that  the  natural  heat  of  the  body,  96,  added 
*'  to  the  heat  of  the  air,  100,  lliould  jointly  have  created 
*'  or  produced  a  much  greater  degree  of  heat  in  the  body; 
*'  but  the  fa£l  was,  that  my  body  never  <;rew  fo  hot  as  the 
"  air  that  furrounded  it,  or  the  inanimate  bodies  immerf- 
*'  ed  in  the  fame.     For  I  remember  well,  that  the  defk, 
*'  when  I  laid  my  arm  upon  it,  a  chair  when  I  fat   down 
*'  in  it,  all  felt  exceeding  warm  to  me,  as  if  they  had  been 
*'  warmed  before  the  fire.     And  I  fuppofe  a  dead  body 
*'  would  have  acquired  the  temperature  of  the  air,  though 
*'  a  living  one,   by  continual  fweating,  and  by  the  eva- 
*'  poration  of  that  fvveat  was  kept  cold."     1  have  been 
the  more   particular    in    tranfcribing   this    paffage    from 
the  works  of  this   philofopher,   as  it  certainly   Ihews  to 
whom  the  merit  of  certain  late   difcoveries,   which   have 
made  fo  much  noife  in  the  philofophical  world,  mofljuitly 
belongs;   I   mean,  that  power  which  the  human  as  well 
as  all  animate  bodies  have,   of  counteradling  the  heat  of 
an  atmofphere  in  which  they  are  placed.      For  what  do  all 
the  experiments  upon  heated  rooms  evince,  farther  than 
had  before  been  publiihed  by  the  do£tor?  It  is  thus  that 
Franklin  ietting  in  his  chair,  like  Newton  reafoning-  upon 
the  figure  of  the  earth,    could  fliew  w!^at  muft  coft  others 
infinite  labour  and  fatigue.      But,   though  the  effect  was 
obferved   and  attributed  to  evaporation,   yet  I  do  not  re- 
member that  it  is  any  where  fliewn  in  what  manner  eva- 

U  2  poration 


144     METEOPvOLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

poration  produces  cold.  Hamilton,  in  his  excellent  cC- 
lay  upon  the  afcent  of  vapors,  fpeaking  of  the  natures  of 
folution  and  evaporation,  has  thefe  words,  "  how  cold  is 
"  produced  in  either  cafe,  I  cannot  pretend  to  fay."  The 
do£lor  has  given  the  moft  probable  explanation  of  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  produced  by  folution,  and  I  think 
the  following,  which  is  collected  from  his  general  doftrine 
may  be  applied  to  evaporation.  It  is  admitted  that  there 
is  a  ftronger  attraction  between  heat  and  water,  or  fuch  like 
fluid,  than  between  heat  and  any  other  body,  for  on  this 
account  it  is  that  bodies  are  cooled  when  plunged  into  wa- 
ter. When  ever  therefore,  water  for  inftance,  is  put  upon 
any  part  of  the  human  body,  its  natural  heat  is  more  at- 
tracted in  that  part  by  the  water,  than  by  the  flefh,  and 
therefore,  the  water  in  going  off  in  the  form  of  vapour 
carries  with  it  part  of  the  heat,  and  confequently  leaves 
that  place  in  a  negative  ftate,  or  with  lefs  than  its  natural 
quantity.  It  is  the  fame  with  the  thermometer.  Hence 
it  is,  that  we  are  much  hotter  frequently  when  the  ther- 
mometer fcarcely  exceeds  82  or  83,  there  being  no  current 
of  air  to  carry  off  the  moiflure  from  the  furface  of  the  body,, 
than  when  it  even  ftands  as  high  as  90  or  95. 


I  am,  with  the  greateft  refpedl, 
Your  fervant  and  friend, 

J.MADISON. 


JULY, 


METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS.     145 


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146     METEOROLOGICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


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Defcriptlon 


[     ^59    ] 


N°  XI. 


Defcnpt'ion  of  a  Machine  for  Meafur'mg  a  Ship^s  Way 
through  the  Sea,  by  F.  Hopkinson,  Efquire. 


^iifi783!  ''  I  ^  H  E  errors  and  uncertainties  incident  to  the 
A  mariner's  log,  in  common  ufe,  are  too  obvious 
not  to  be  univerfally  acknowledged.  Were  it  not  for  the 
obfervations  navigators  are  accuftomed  to  make  of  a  fhip's 
progrefs,  by  the  apparent  paflage  of  the  water  along  fide, 
and  the  figns  that  ufually  prefent  on  approaching  the  land, 
the  log,  alone,  would  be  a  very  unfafe  dependence. 

Several  attempts  have,  therefore,  been  made  to  improve 
the  log,  and  render  its  indications  more  accurate,  but  with- 
out fuccefs.  All  the  machines  of  this  kind,  that  I  have 
heard  of,  were  compofed  of  a  number  of  wheels,  which 
were  to  be  put  in  motion  by  the  twifting  of  a  line  let  out 
aftern,  having  a  drag  at  the  end  fo  conftrudted  as  to  whirl 
round,  fafter  or  flower,  according  to  the  motion  of  the 
Ihip. 

The  objedlions  to  a  machine,  fo  conftrufted,  are,  F'lrf, 
If  the  line  is  not  very  long  the  drag  will  be  confiderably 
affefted  by  the  fliip's  wake ;  and,  if  it  is  very  long,  the 
twilHngs  will  be  irregular,  and  the  line  liable  to  kink. 
Secondly.,  If  the  drag  is  fo  heavy  as  to  link  below  the  bot- 
toms of  the  waves,  when  the  fliip  fails  faft,  it  will  be  too 
heavy,  and  fink  too  deep  when  {he  hath  but  a  flow  pro- 
greflive  motion  :  Or,  othervvife,  if  the  drag  is  of  a  proper 
weight  Avhen  Ihe  makes  but  little  way,  it  will  fkip  from 
wave  to  wave  through  the  air  when  flie  fails  with  a  briflc 
gale,  and  fo  be  of  no  ufe.  And,  Thirdly,  It  will  be  liable 
to  mort  of  the  other  irregularities  to  which  the  log  in 
common  ufe  is  expofed. 

Y  a  The 


i6o      MACHINE  for  MEASURING  a 

The  machine  now  propofed  will,  It  is  hoped,  be  free 
from,  at  leaft,  fome  of  thefe  objedions.  And,  ahhougK 
it  may  not  be  able  to  afcertain  a  fliip's  way  through  the 
fea  to  a  mathematical  precifion,  yet  if  it  fhould  be  found 
to  anfwer  the  purpofe  better  than  any  inftrument  hitherto 
contrived,  it  may  be  admitted  as  an  acquifition  to  the  art 
of  navigation. 

This  machine,  in  Its  moft  fimple  form,  is  reprefented  by 
Fig.  I,  Plate  3.  Wherein  AB  is  a  ftrong  rod  of  iron  move- 
able on  the  fulcrum  C.  D  is  a  thin  circular  plate  of  brafs 
rivetted  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  rod.  E  an  horizon- 
tal arm  conneded  at  one  end  with  the  top  of  the  rod  AB 
by  a  moveable  joint  F,  and  at  the  other  end  with  the 
bottom  of  the  index  H  by  a  like  moveable  joint  G.  H  is 
the  index  turning  on  its  centre  I  and  travelling  over  the 
graduated  arch  K  ;  and  Lisa  ftrong  fpring  bearing  againll: 
the  rod  AB  and  conftantly  counterading  the  preflure  upon 
the  palate  D.  The  rod  AB  fhould  be  applied  clofe  to  one 
fide  of  the  cut  water  or  ftem,  and  fhould  be  of  fuch  a 
length  that  the  palate  D  may  be  no  higher  above  the  keel 
than  is  necefTary  to  fecure  it  from  injury  when  the  vefTel 
is  aground  or  fails  in  fhoal  water.  As  the  bow  of  the 
fhip  curves  inward  towards  the  keel  M,  the  palate  D  will 
be  throvrn  to  a  diftance  from  the  bottom  of  the  veflel,  al- 
though the  perpendicular  rod,  to  which  it  is  annexed,  lies 
clofe  to  the  bow  above  ;  and,  therefore,  the  palate  will  be 
more  fairly  afted  upon.  The  arm  E  fhould  enter  the  bow 
fomewhere  near  thehawfer  hole,  and  lead  to  any  convenient 
place  in  the  forecaftle,  where  a  fmooth  board  or  plate  may 
be  fixed,  having  the  index  H  and  graduated  archK  upon  it. 

It  is  evident  from  the  figure,  that  as  the  fhip  is  urged 
forward  by  the  wind,  the  palate  D  will  be  preffed  upon  by 
the  refifting  medium,  with  a  greater  or  lei's  force  accord- 
ing to  the  progrefTive  motion  of  the  fhip  :  and  this  will 
operate  upon  the  levers  fo  as  to  immediately  affedt  the  in- 
dex ;  making  the  leafl  encreafe  or  diminution  of  the  fhip's 

way 


S  H  I  P's    W  A  Y.  ,      i6t 

way  vlfible  on  the  graduated  arch.  The  fpring  L  always 
counterading  the  preffure  upon  the  palate,  and  bringing 
back  the  index  on  any  relaxation  of  the  force  imprefled. 

A  fliip  going  through  the  fea  opens  a  paffage  for  her- 
felf,  making  a  hole  in  the  water  equal  to  her  immerged 
bulk.     As  fhe  paffes  on,  this  vacancy  is  filled  up  by  the 
tumbling  in  of  the  waters  from  each  fide,  and  from  un- 
derneath, at  the  ftern,  with  great  violence.     So  that  there 
is  a  fair  current  of  water  from  her  bow  to  her  ftern,  paf- 
fing  under  the  bottom  and  along  fide  ;  the  force  of  which 
current  is  in  diredl  proportion  to  the  velocity  of  the  Ihip's 
progrelfive  motion.     This  machine  is,   therefore,  advan- 
tageoufly  placed  at  the  bow  of  the  /hip,  where  the  current 
firft  begins,  and  ads  fairly  upon  the  palate ;   in  preference 
to  the  ftern,  where  the  tumultuous  clofing  of  the  waters 
caufes  a  wake,  vifible  to  a  great  diftance.     The  palate  D  is 
funk  nearly  as  low  as  the  keel,  that  it  may  not  be  influ- 
enced by  the  heaping  up  of  the  water,  and  the  dafhing  of 
the  waves  at  and  near  the  water-line.     The  arch  K  is  to 
afcertain  how  many  knots  or  miles  fl^e  would  run  in  one 
hour,  at  her  then  rate  of  failing.     But  the  graduations  on 
this  arch  mart  be  unequal ;  becaufe  the  refiftance  of  the 
fpring  L  will  encreafe  as  it  becomes  more  bent  ;  fo  that 
the  index  will  travel  over  a  greater  fpace  from  one  to  five 
miles  (which  I  fuppofe  to  be  a  medium)  than  from  five  to 
twelve.     Laftly,  the  palate,  rod,  fpring  and  all  the  metallic 
parts  "of  the  inftrument  fliould  be  covered  with  a  ftrong 
varnifti,  to  prevent  ruft  from  the  corrofive  quality  of  the 
fait  water  and  fea  air. 

IMPROVEMENT  of  this  MACHINE. 

Let  the  rod  or  fpear  AB  Fig:  r,  be  a  round  rod  of  iron 
or  fteel  ;  and  inftead  of  moving  on  the  fulcrum  or  joint  as 
at  C,  let  it  pafs  through  and  turn  freely  in  a  focket,  to 
which  focket  the  moveable  joint  muft  be  annexed  as,   re— 

prefented 


i62       MACHINE  FOR  MEASURING  a 

prefented  in  Fig.  2.  The  rod  muft  have  a  fhoulder  to  bear 
on  the  upper  edge  of  the  focket,  to  prevent  its  flipping 
quite  down.  The  rod  muft  alfo  pafs  through  a  Hke  focket 
at  F,  Fig.  I.  The  joint  of  the  lower  focket  muft  be  fixed 
to  the  bow  of  the  fhip,  and  the  upper  joint  or  focket  muft 
be  connected  with  the  horizontal  arm  E.  On  the  top  of 
the  uppermoft  focket,  let  there  be  a  fmall  circular  plate, 
bearing  the  32  points  of  the  mariner's  compafs  ;  and  let 
the  top  of  the  rod  AB  come  through  the  centre  of  this 
plate,  fo  as  to  carry  a  fmall  index  upon  it,  as  is  reprefent- 
ed  in  Fig.  3.  This  fmall  index  muft  be  fixed  to  the  top 
of  the  rod  on  a  fquare  ;  fo,  that  by  turning  the  index  round 
the  plate,  the  rod  may  alfo  turn  in  the  fockets,  and  of  courfe 
carry  the  palate  D  round  with  it.  The  little  index  always 
pointing  in  a  diredlion  with  the  face  of  the  palate.  The 
fmall  compafs  plate  fhould  not  be  faftened  to  the  top  of 
the  focket,  but  only  fitted  tightly  on,  that  it  may  be  move- 
able at  pleafure.  Suppofe,  then,  the  intended  port  to  bear 
fouth-weft  from  the  place  of  departure  ;  the  palate  muft  be 
turned  on  the  focket  till  the  fouth-weft  point  thereon  looks 
direftiy  to  the  Ihip's  bow ;  fo  that  the  fouth-weft  and 
north-eaft  line  on  the  compafs  plate  may  be  precifely  pa- 
rallel with  the  fhip's  keel ;  and  in  this  pofition  the  plate 
muft  remain  during  the  whole  voyage.  Suppofe  then  the 
fhip  to  be  failing  in  the  diredt  courfe  of  her  intended  voy- 
age, with  her  bowfprit  pointing  fouth-weft,  let  the  little 
index  be  brought  to  the  fouth-weft  point  on  the  compafs 
plate,  and  the  palate  D  will  necefl'arily  prefent  its  broad 
face  toward  the  port  of  deftination;  and  this  it  muft  al- 
ways be  made  to  do,  be  the  fliip's  failing  courfe  what  It 
may.  If,  on  account  of  unfavourable  winds,  the  fliip  is 
obliged  to  deviate  from  her  intended  courfe,  the  little  in- 
dex muft  be  moved  fo  many  points  from  the  fouth-weft 
line  of  the  compafs  plate,  as  the  compafs  in  the  binnacle 
fhall  fhew  that  fhe  deviates  from  her  true  courfe.  So  that, 
in  whatever  direilion  the  fhip  fliall  fail,  the  palate  D  will 

always 


S  H  I  P's     W  A  Y.  1(53 

always  look  full  to  the  fouth-wefl;  point  of  the  horizon, 
or  towards  the  port  of  deftination  ;  and,  conlequently,  will 
prefent  only  an  oblique  furface  to  the  refifting  medium — 
more  or  lels  oblique  as  the  fhip  deviates  more  or  lei's  from 
the  true  cgurfe  of  her  voyage.  As,  therefore,  the  refin- 
ance of  the  water  will  operate  lefs  upon  the  palate  in  an 
oblique  than  in  a  diredl:  pofition,  in  exa£l  proportion  to 
its  obliquity,  the  Index  FI  will  not  Ihew  how  many  knots 
the  vefTel  runs  in  her  then  courfe,  but  will  (it  is  expefted) 
indicate  how  many  fhe  gains  in  the  diredl  line  of  her  in- 
tended voyage.  Thus,  in  Fig.  5,  if  the  Ihip's  courfe  lies 
in  the  direftion  of  the  line  AB,  but  fhe  can  fail  by  the 
•wind  no  nearer  than  AC ;  fuppofe  then,  her  progreflive 
motion  fuch  as  to  perform  AC,  equal  to  five  knots  or  miles 
in  one  hour  ;  yet  the  index  H  will  only  point  to  four  knots 
on  the  graduated  arch,  becaufe  fhe  gains  no  more  than  at 
that  rate  on  the  true  line  of  her  voyage,  viz.  from  A  to  B. 
Thus  will  the  difference  between  her  real  motion  and  that 
pointed  out  by  the  index  be  always  in  proportion  to  her 
deviation  from  the  intended  port,  until  flie  fails  in  a  line 
at  right  angles  therewith,  as  AD  ;  in  which  cafe  the  palate 
would  prefent  only  a  thin  fliarp  edge  to  the  refifting  me- 
dium ;  the  preffure  of  which  Ihould  not  be  fulficient  to 
overcome  the  fridion  of  the  machine,  and  the  bearing  of 
the  fpring  L.  So  that  at  whatever  rate  the  fhip  may  fail 
on  that  line  yet  the  index  will  not  be  affeiled :  Shewing 
that  fhe  gains  nothing  on  her  true  courfe.  In  this  cafe, 
and  alio  when  the  veffel  is  not  under  way,  the  a£tion  of 
the  fpring  L  iliould  caufe  the  index  to  point  at  o;  as  repre- 
fented  by  the  dotted  lines  in  figure  i  and  4. 

As  the  truth  of  this  inllrumcnt  mufi:  depend  on  the 
equal  preifure  of  the  refifting  medium  upon  the  palate  D 
according  to  the  fhip's  velocity,  and  the  proportionable 
adlion  of  the  fpring  L,  there  fhould  be  a  pin  or  fcrcw  at 
the  joints  C  and  F,  lb  that  the  rod  may  be  readily  unfliip- 
ped  and  taken  in,  in  order  to  clean  the  palate  from  any 

foulnefs 


564       MACHINE  for  MEASURING  a 

foulnefs  it  may  contrad:;  which  would  greatly  increafeits 
operation  on  the  index  H,  and  thereby  render  the  gradu- 
ated arch,  falfe  and  uncertain. 

Further,  the  fpring  L  may  be  expofed  too  much  to  in- 
jury from   the  fait  water,   if  fixed   on  the  outfide  of  the 
fliip's  bow.  To  remedy  this  it  may  be  brought  under  cover 
by  conftrudling  the  machine  as  reprefented  by  figure  4. 
Where,  A  B  is  the  rod,  C  the  fulcrum  or  centre  of  its  mo- 
tion; D  the  palate;  E  the  horizontal  arm  leading  through 
a  fmall  hole  into  the  forecaftle:  M  is  a  ftrong  chain,  faft- 
ened  at  one  end  to  the  arm  E  and  at  the  other  to  a  rim  or 
barrel  on  the  wheel  G,  which  by  means  of  its  teeth  gives 
motion  to  the  femicircle  I  and  index  H.     The  fpring  L  is 
fpiral  and  enclofed  in  a  box  or  barrel,  like  the  main  fpring 
of  a  watch :  A  fmall  chain  is  fixed  to  and  palling  round 
the  barrel  is  faftened  by  the  other   end  to  the  fuzee  \V. 
This  fuzee  is  conneded  by  its  teeth  with  the  wheel  G,  and 
counteradls  the  motion  of  the  palate  D.     NN  are  the  two 
lockets  through  which  the  rod  A  B  pafies,  and  in  which  it 
is  turned  round  by  means  of  the  little  index  R.     S  is  the 
fmall  compafs  plate,    moveable  on  the  top  of  the  upper 
focket  N.     The  plate  S  hath  an  upright  rim  round  its  edge 
cut  into  teeth  or  notches ;  fo  that  when  the  index  R  is  a 
little  raifed  up,  in  order  to  bring  it  round  to  any  intended 
point,  it  may  fall  into  one  of  thefe  notches  and  be  detained 
there:   Otherwife  the  prefl'ure  of  the  water  will  force  the 
palate  D  from  its  oblique  pofition,  and  turn  the  rod  and 
index  round  to  the  diredion  in  which   the  Ihip  fhall  be 
then  failing.     Should  it  be  apprehended  that  the  palate  D, 
being  placed  fo  far  forward,  may  affed  the  fhip's  lleerage 
or  obllrud  her  failing,  it  ihould  be  conlidered  that  a  very 
fmall  plate  will  be  fufficient  to  work  the  machine.      I  Ihould 
luppofe  that  one  of  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter  would 
fully  anfwer  the  purpofe:  And  yet  not  be  large  enough  to 
have  any  fenfible  operation  on  the  helm  or  ihip's  way. 

The 


S  H  I  r's     W  A  Y.  165 

The  greateft  difficulty,  perhaps,  will  be  In  graduating 
the  arch  K;  (if  the  machine  is  conftrudled  as  mfgiire  i,) 
the  unequal  divifions  of  which  can  only  be  afcertained  by 
adtual  experiment  on  board  of  each  fhip  refpedlively;  in 
as  much  as  the  accuracy  of  thefe  graduations  will  depend 
on  three  circumftances,  viz.  The  pofition  of  the  fulcrum 
C  with  refped:  to  the  length  of  the  rod,  the  fize  of  the  palate 
D  and  the  ftrcngth  or  bearing  of  the  fpring  L.  When  thefe 
graduations,  however,  are  once  afcertained  for  the  machine 
on  board  of  any  one  velTel,  they  will  not  want  any  future 
alterations;  provided  the  palate  D  be  kept  clean,  and  the 
fpring  L  retains  its  elafticity. 

But  the  unequal  divifions  of  the  graduated  arch  will  be 
unneceflary,  If  the  machine  is  conftrinfled  as  in  fgure  4. 
For  as  the  chain  goes  round  the  barrel  L,  and  then  winds 
through  the  fpiral  channel  of  the  fuzee  W,  the  force  of 
the  main-fpring  muft  operate  equally,  or  nearly  fo,  in  all 
pofitions  of  the  index;  and  confequently,  the  divifions  of 
the  arch  K  may,  in  fuch  cafe,  be  equal. 

After  all,  it  is  not  expected  that  a  fhip's  longitude  can 
be  determined  to  a  mathematical  certainty  by  this  inftru- 
ment.  The  irregular  motions  and  impulfes  to  which  a 
fhip  is  continually  expofed,  make  fuch  an  accuracy  unat- 
tainable perhaps  by  any  machinery  :  But  if  it  fhould  be 
found,  as  1  flatter  myfelf  it  will  on  fair  experiment,  that  it 
anfwers  the  purpofe  much  better  than  the  common  log,  it 
may  be  confidered  as  an  acquifition  to  the  art  of  navigation. 

It  fhould  be  obferved  that  in  afcertaining  a  fhip's  longi- 
tude by  a  time-piece,  this  great  inconvenience  occurs,  that 
a  fmall  and  trifling  miftake  in  the  time,  makes  a  very  great 
and  dangerous  error  in  the  diftance  run  :  Whereas  the  er- 
rors of  this  machine  will  operate  no  farther  than  their  real 
amount ;  which  can  never  be  great  or  dangerous,  if  cor- 
rected by  the  ufual  obfervations  made  by  mariners  for  cor- 
re<fling  the  common  log. 

A  like  machine  made  in  its  fimple  form,  (as  at  fig.  r.) 
fo  conftrudled  as  to  iliip  and  unfliip,   might  occafionally 

Y  be 


i66  ACCOUNToFTHE 

be  applied  along  fide  about  midfhips  in  order  to  afcer- 
tain  the  lee-way  ;  which,  if  rightly  IbevN^n  will  give  the 
fhip's  precife  longitude.  As  to  fea-currents,  this  and  all 
other  machines  hitherto  invented,  muft  be  fijbjedl  to  their 
influence ;  and  proper  allowances  muft  be  made,  accord- 
ing to  the  fkill  and  knowledge  of  the  navigator. 

Laftly,  fome  difcretion  will  be  neceffary  in  taking  ob- 
iervations  from  the  machine  to  be  entered  on  the  log-book. 
I  mean,  that  the  moft  favourable  and  equitable  moment 
jhould  be  chofen  for  the  obfervation.  Not  whilft  the  fhip 
is  rapidly  defcending  the  declivity  of  a  wave ;  or  is  fud- 
denly  checked  by  a  ftroke  of  the  fea  ;  or  is  in  the  very  a6l 
of  plunging.  In  all  cafes,  I  fuppofe,  periods  may  be  found 
in  which  a  fhip  proceeds  with  a  true  average  velocity ;  to 
difcover  which  a  little  experience  and  attention  will  lead 
the  Ikilful  mariner'-. 


N°    XII. 

Account  of  an  Electrical  Eel-,  or  the  Torpedo  of  Surinam., 
by  William  Bryant,  Efquire. 

URINAM  a  colony  of  South  America  belonging 
to  the  ftates  of  Holland,  abounds  with  as  many 
natural  curiofities  as  any  country  in  the  world.  But  that 
which  I  look  upon  to  be  as  furprifmg  as  any  in  it,  and 
which  I  believe  has  not  yet  been  accurately  defcribed,  is  a 
fifli  of  the  fpecies  of  eel,  and  is  caught  there  in  nets  among 
other  fifli;  generally  in  muddy  rivers,  and  I  believe  is 
found  in  moft  of  the  neighbouring  provinces.     In  fize  and 

colour 

*  An  ingenious  mechanic  would  probably  conftrucl  this  macliine  to  better  advantage  in 
many  rel'pcdts.  The  author  only  meant  to  lug^^ieft  the  principle  ;  experiment  alone  can  point 
cut  tlie  beil  n»ethod  of  applying  it.  He  is  feniiblc  of  at  leal}  one  deficiency,  viz.  That  the 
little  index  R,  figure  4,  will  not  be  ftrong  enough  to  retain  the  palate  D  in  an  oblique  pofiti- 
on  when  the  fhip  is  failing  by  the  wind  ;  more  efpecially  as  the  conipafs  plate  S,  in  whofe 
notched  rim  the  index  R  is  to  fall,  is  not  fixed  to,  but  only  fitted  tight  on  the  focket  H,  MiU)y 
means  however  might  be  contrived  to  remedy  this  inconvenience. 


\ 

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y^^/:,^  : 


ELECTRICAL     EEL.  167 

colour  it  is  not  unlike  a  common  eel  of  Europe  or  Ame- 
rica, and  in  fliape  refembles  it  more,  except  that  it  is  thicker 
in  proportion  to  its  length,  and  the  head  is  more  flat  and 
not  lb  pointed ;  but  differs  from  them  in  this  refpecl,  that 
it  comes  to  the  furface  to  breathe  in  the  air.  It  is  called 
by  the  Dutch  Beave  Ja/,  and  by  the  Englilh  inhabitants 
the  Numbing  Eel.  As  to  the  other  qualities,  of  which 
1  mean  chiefly  to  take  notice,  and  which  I  think  are  as  dif- 
ferent from  the  Torpedo  of  Europe,  as  the  fifli  is  in  fhape, 
they  are  as  follows. 

On  touching  the  fifli  as  it  lies  in  the  water  in  a  tub  pro- 
vided for  it,  a  fudden  and  violent  fnock  is  received,  in  all 
refpe£ts  like  that  which  is  felt  on  touching  the  prime  con- 
ductor, when  charged  with  the  elciftrical  fluid  from  the 
globe;  and  like  that  chiefly,  affeds  the  ends  of  the  fingers 
and  elbow.  Gently  holding  the  tail  of  the  fifh  with  one 
hand  and  touching  the  head  with  the  other,  a  very  violent 
fhock  is  felt  in  both  elbows  and  through  the  breaft  and 
flioulders.  I  at  firft  imagined  that  the  violence  of  the 
fhock  proceeded  from  both  arms  receiving  it  at  the  fame 
time,  and  that  the  pain  was  no  more  than  that  of  the  two 
ftrokes  added  together;  but  I  found  myfelf  miftaken.  For 
upon  feven  perfons  joining  hands,  and  the  firft  taking  hold 
of  the  tail  (which  may  with  more  eafe  be  held  than  the 
head)  and  the  feventh  at  the  fame  time  touching  the  head, 
we  were  all  affedted  in  both  elbows,  and  that  in  the  fame 
manner  as  I  remember  to  have  been  in  the  eledrical  expe- 
riment, when  feveral  perfons  take  hold  of  the  wire  and  the 
equilibrium  is  reftored  by  the  fluids  paifing  through  their 
bodies. 

I  find  the  fhock  may  be  received  through  metallic  fub- 
flances.  On  touching  the  fifh  with  an  old  fword  blade  I 
was  ftrongly  afFeded.  But  arming  it  with  fealing-wax 
and  taking  hold  of  that  part  which  was  covered  with  it,  the 
eledrical  fluid  (I  cannot  help  calling  it  fo)  would  not  pals. 
Neither  has  it  any  cfFed  on  the  body  when  touched  with 

Y  2  glafs 


i68  A  C  C  O  U  N  T    or    THE 

glafs  bottle,  feallng-wax,  &c.  Yet  I  cannot  obferve  the 
leafl:  diminution  of  this  quality  by  placing  the  tub  which 
contains  the  filli  on  glafs  bottles;  it  continues  the  fame  in 
all  refpe<£ls.  So  that  whether  it  has  an  unaccountable  fa- 
culty of  collecting  a  quantity  of  the  fluid  from  the  fur- 
rounding  waters,  or  through  the  body  of  the  perfon  toucli- 
ing  it,  or  has  in  its  own  body  a  large  fund  which  it  can 
diicharge  at  pleafure,  I  am  greatly  at  a  lofs  to  think  or 
imagine. 

Although  it  has  no  effedt  on  the  human  body  when 
touched  with  a  piece  of  wood,  or  indeed  any  other  fubftance 
not  metallic ;  yet  an  accident  difcovered  to  me,  that  on 
fome  occafions  the  effect  would  be  fenfible  through  wood. 
For  one  morning  while  I  was  ftandlng  by,  as  a  fervant  was 
emptying  the  tub,  which  he  had  lifted  intirely  from  the 
ground,  and  was  pouring  off  the  water  to  renew  it,  and  the 
fifli  left  almoft  dry,  the  negro  received  fo  violent  a  fhock 
as  occafioned  him  to  let  the  tub  fall,  and  calling  another 
to  his  aiFiftance,  I  caufed  them  both  to  lift  the  tub  free  from 
the  ground,  when  pouring  off  the  remains  of  the  water 
they  both  received  fmart  fhocks  and  were  obliged  to  deiifl: 
from  ernptving  the  tub  in  that  manner.  This  I  afterwards 
tried  myfelf  and  received  the  like  fhock.  This  fifli  in- 
deed was  one  of  the  largeft  I  have  feen  and  but  newly 
caught.  For  I  obferve  that  after  being  fometime  confined 
in  a  tub  and  wanting  perhaps  their  natural  food,  they  lofe 
much  of  the  flrength  of  this  extraordinary  quality.  I  am 
fbmetimes  apt  to  conjecture,  that  this  animal  has  the  pow- 
er of  communicating  the  f^roke  when,  and  with  what  de- 
gree of  force  it  will;  and  that  it  ferves  him  as  a  weapon  of 
defence  againfl  his  enemies.  For  I  have  often  obferved  that 
on  firfl  taking  hold  of  it,  the  fhock  is  tolerable;  but  as  foon 
as  he  perceives  himfelf  the  leafl  confined,  it  is  much  more 
violent.  This  I  experienced  to  my  coft,  as  I  one  day  took 
liold  of  it,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifh,  I  lifted  it  partly  out 
of  the  water,  when  on  a  fudden  I  received  fo  fmart  a  fhock 

that 


ELECTRICAL    EEL.  169- 

that  it  occafioned  a  ftrong  contradlion  in  the  bending 
mufcles  of  my  fingers,  and  I  could  not  immediately  let  it 
go;  but  endeavouring  to  difengage  my  hand  threw  it  on 
the  ground;  taking  hold  of  it  a  fecond  time,  to  return  it 
into  the  tub,  I  was  more  ftrongly  afFedted  than  ac  firft,  and 
that  not  only  in  my  hands  and  arms,  but  throughout  my 
•whole  body  ;  the  forepart  of  my  head  and  the  back  part 
of  my  legs  fufFered  principally;  and  in  the  fame  manner 
as  on  receiving  a  very  fmart  fliock  from  a  highly  charged 
phial  in  eleflrical  experiments. 

On  obferving  that  the  feniation  occafioned  by  the  fliock 
as  to  the  nature  and  degree  of  ftrength  upon  touching  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  fifh,  was  different,  I  was  at  firft  in- 
clined to  think  it  might  be  owing  to  its  having  an  extra- 
ordinary faculty  of  containing  more  of  the  tiuid  in  one 
part  of  its  body  than  in  another.  The  tail  part  to  above 
one  third  of  its  length,  occafions  rather  a  numbnefs  and 
tingling,  than  pain,  but  on  applying  the  end  of  the  fing- 
ers to  the  back,  head,  and  under  part  of  its  body,  it  caufes 
a  fliarp  pricking  pain.  This  may  poffibly  be  accounted 
for  by  the  difference  in  the  texture  of  the  furface  of  the 
fkin,  as  the  manner  of  the  ele(flrical  fluids  coming  from  a 
glafs  tube  is  different  when  its  iurface  is  altered  by  being 
rubbed  with  different  iubftances,  as  has  been  lately  taken 
notice  of  in  a  letter  to  the  Royal  Society. 

Thefc  arc  the  principal  obfervations,  the  fliort  time  1 
refided  at  Surinam,  allowed  me  an  opportunity  of  making 
relating  to  this  extraordinary  animal. 


Ohfcrv  at  ion's 


[     170    ] 


N°  XIII. 


Ohfervat'ions  on  the  Numh  Fijh-,  or  Torporific  EeU  by 
Henry  Collins  Flagg,  South-Carolina. 


Read  March   f  D  Q  mvlelf  thc  plcafurc,  though  late  I  con- 

-th,  17SJ.      t      r  r      ^  1  •  u  -i-      r 

JL  tels,  to  comply  with  my  promile  or  commu- 
nicating fome  obfervations  on  the  Numb  Fifh,  or  Torpo- 
rific Eel,  which  I  think  a  more  proper  name.  Thefe  ob- 
fervations are  contained  in  two  letters  I  had  the  honor  to 
write  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Stiles,  a  member  of  your  philofo- 
phical  fociety,  from  Rio  Eflequebo.  Pleafe  to  accept  the 
following  extrad:s. 

The  apparent  difference  between  the  torporific  eel  and 
that  ufually  caught  in  your  harbour  is,  the  former  is  flatter 
on  the  back  and  head,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  perfo- 
rated with  feveral  holes*,  and  has  on  each  fide,  behind,  a 
fmall  fin  which  fome  fay  are  elevated  or  depreffed  as  the 
fifh  is  pleai'ed  or  notf ;  the  body  I  think  is  larger  in  pro- 
portion to  the  length,  and  it  has  a  broad  fin  connedled  to 
the  belly  and  continued  to  the  tail.  I  have  feen  this  fifh 
four  feet  long.  The  fenfation  occafioned  by  touching  it 
appeared  to  me  exadly  fimilar  to  an  eled;ric  fhock.  I  have 
as  yet  been  able  to  procure  only  one  of  thefe  eels,  and  that 
was  injured  by  laying  too  long  dry  before  it  came  to  me. 
The  following  are  the  remarks  I  made  the  little  time  it 
lived.  I  received  the  fifh  from  a  negro  in  a  wicker  bafket, 
and  laying  it  on  the  ground  felt  a  confiderable  fhock,  as  I 
did  too  when  I  turned  the  fifh  out  of  the  bafket  into  a  tub 

of 

*  Thefe  holes  do  not  penetrate  to  the  mouth,  nor  could  I  difcover  the  ufe  of  them.  But  1 
■was  not  fufficiently  exa6t  In  my  difle<5tioii  of  tlic  head,  or  I  Uunk.  1  miijht  Juive  found  the  tcr- 
Jnjnation  of  thefe  du^ils, 

f  Thib  is  true. 


T  O  R  P  O  R  I  F  I  C    E  E  L.  ijr 

of  water.  The  fhock  is  greater  if  the  fifli  is  enraged;  but 
whether  repeated  touches  will  exhaufl.  this  ftrange  power, 
as  frequently  repeated  bites  do  the  viperine  and  fome  other 
poifons  for  a  time,  I  believe  no  experiment  has  yet  deter- 
mined*. If  a  perfon  hold  his  finger  in  the  water  feveral 
inches  diftant  from  the  fifli  and  another  touch  it,  a  fliock 
equally  fevere  is  felt  by  him  who  does  not  touch  it.  The 
fame  thing  happens  if  the  fiHi  exerts  itfelf  without  being 
touched.  If  a  number  of  perfons  join  hands,  and  one 
touch  the  eel,  they  are  all  equally  fhocked,  unlefs  there 
fliould  happen  to  be  one  of  the  number  incapable  of  being 
affeifled  by  the  eel,  which  is  the  cafe  of  a  very  worthy 
lady  of  my  acquaintance,  who  can  handle  this  filh  at  will. 
I  am  informed  fome  Indians  and  negroes  can  do  the  fame  ; 
whether  by  the  affiftance  of  any  means  to  counteract  the 
power  of  the  eel,  I  know  not ;  but  am  perfuaded  it  is 
Ibmething  in  the  conftitution  of  the  ladyj".  The  eel  I  had 
obtained  got  out  of  the  tub,  and  it  was  with  fome  difficul- 
ty I  returned  it,  for  the  repeated  Ihocks  I  received  through 
a  piece  of  deal  board  eighteen  inches  long,  with  which  1 
attempted  to  lift  it,  made  my  arms  ache  very  much,  and 
for  a  confiderable  time.  I  think  the  numbnefs  occafioned 
by  touching  this  eel  continues  longer  than  that  from  an 
eledric  fliock  of  the  fame  degree  of  force,  and  I  have  been 
allured  by  a  perfon  of  good  ienfe  and  veracity,  that  a  ne- 
gro fellow  formerly  being  bantered  by  his  companions  for 
his  fear  of  this  eel,  determined  to  give  a  proof  of  his  re- 
folution,  and  attempted  to  grafp  it  with  both  hands.  The 
unhappy  coniequence  was,  a  confirmed  paralyfis  of  both 
arms.  1  hear  this  fellow  is  ftill  living  in  the  illand  of  St. 
Chrirtopher's  ;  if  ib,  I  can  obtain  more  fatisfadlion,  for  I 
have  my,  doubts  of  the  negro's  honeftyij;.  But  very  cer- 
tain 

*   I  am  fir.ce  convinced  they  do. 

f  This  lady,  when  I  became  acquainted  with  her,  was  far  gone  in  an  he<flic  fever.  And  I 
did  not  think  to  enquire  if  {he  could  treat  the  iiih  with  fo  much  familiarity  while  in  a  perfeifl 
ftate  of  healtlw 

t  This  account  was  afterwards  confirmed  to  me,  with  the  further  information,  that  after  fe- 
vcral  years  the  negro  recovered  the  ule  of  his  arms  by  flow  degrees,  and  1  think  without  any. 
alliilancc  from  medicine. .  x 


172         OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 

tain  it  is,  that  many  perfons  have  been  knocked  down  by 
the  feverity  of  the  fhock.  The  languid  ftate  in  which  I 
found  the  eel  the  morning  after  it  was  taken,  gave  me  an 
opportunity  of  obferving  that  though  I  could  perceive  no 
fhock  by  touching  it  on  or  near  the  tail  ;  yet  applying 
my  finger  near  the  belly,  the  torporific  power  was  very 
confiderable,  notvi^ithftanding  the  fiih  was  now  almoft  dead. 
This  I  repeated  feveral  times,  as  a  remark  of  fome  confe- 
quence  in  affifting  us  to  determine  whether,  or  how  far, 
the  emiflion  of  torporific  particles  dependson  the  exertion 
of  any  mufcular  force*  ;  upon  which  principle  Mr.  Rea- 
mure  accounts  for  the  benumbing  power  of  the  Torpedo. 
I  much  doubt  if  the  moft  acute  eye  can  difcern  any  moti- 
on in  the  eel  at  the  time  it  fliocksj".  I  have  been  fo  par- 
ticular in  taking  notice  of  the  bafket  and  deal-board,  be- 
caufe  it  has  been  aflerted  that  the  eel  fliocks  only  by  im- 
mediate contaft,  through  metal  or  very  hard  wood.  This 
eel  is  frequently  eat  by  the  negroes,  and  reckoned  very 
delicious.  Its  common  food  is  fhrimps  or  any  fmall  fifh. 
I  have  lately  made  another  experiment  upon  the  torpo- 
rific eel.  It  was  fuggefted  to  me  by  the  very  great  fimi- 
larity  between  the  efl-efts  of  a  fhock  from  the  eel  and  an 
eledlric  machine.  I  held  an  iron  rod  between  two  pieces 
of  glafs  and  touched  the  eel  with  it,  but  could  not  perceive 
the  leaft  fhock.  I  held  the  rod  in  a  filk  handkerchief  with 
the  fame  effect.  I  repeated  thefe  experiments  on  two  eels 
with  equal  fuccefs.  I  think  this  experiment  demonftrates 
that  the  eledric  and  torporific  particles  are  the  fame.  I 
have  tried  the  eff'eds  of  this  fifh  upon  the  needle  of  a  com- 
pafs  but  perceived  no  influence.     I  have  not,  however, 

done 

*  I  have  not  ventured  as  yet  to  give  any  opinion  of  the  ftrano-e  property  by  whieh  this  fi(h 
becomes  the  conductor  of  the  cledric  fluid.  But  that  the  emiflion  of  it  depends  upon  the  ex- 
ertion of  mufcular  force  may,  1  tliiiik,  be  concluded  from  hence  ;  tliat,  as  has  already  been 
determined,  repeated  exertions  will  exbaufl:  its  power  to  fliock  for  a  time,  and  before  it  can 
again  exert  its  influence,  a  frefli  quantity  of  fire  muft  be  collecf  ed  ;  nor  do  I  think  the  experi- 
ment 1  made  on  the  dying  eel  invalidates  this  opinion,  for  to  the  bcft  of  my  recoUedion  it 
ceafed  to  fhock  fome  time  before  its  death. 

I  I  am  informed  the  motion  is  perceptible,  though  I  confefs  1  could  not  diftinguifh  it. 


ACCOUNT  OF  A  METEOR.  173 

done  with  the  eel,  and  hereafter  will  repeat  all  the  old  and 
make  new  experiments  upon  it*. 

This  fifh  raifes  its  head  every  few  minutes  above  the 
water  to  refpire. 

I  have  feen  negroes  take  hold  of  it,  at  firft  very  cauti- 
oufly,  receiving  many  light  fhocks,  but  prefently  have 
grafped  it  hard  and  taken  it  out  of  the  water. 

There  is  a  kind  of  light  wood  through  which  the  eel 
cannot  fhock, 

Mrs.  Behn,  in  her  Oroonoko,  gives  a  defcription  of  this 
fifli,  which  flie  calls  the  numb-eel,  and  fays  it  is  taken  in 
the  river  Surinam. 

From  the  above  experiments,  partial  as  they  are,  I  leave 
you,  fir,  to  judge  how  far  the  torporific  and  eledlric  fluids 
are  alike. 

I  am,  with  the  greateft  refpedt  and  efteem, 

Your  mofl:  humble  fervant, 
IXtrT'Sa!  HENRY  COLLINS  FLAGG. 


N°  XIV. 

To  David  Rittenhouse,   Efquire,  from  John 
Page,  Efquire. 

Williamfljurg,  December  4,   1779. 
DEAR     SIR, 

Read  May  "B"  HAVE  ofteu  thought  there  was  a  ftrong  re- 
aJ,  1783.  J^  refemblance  between  fome  of  the  phenomena 
of  electricity  and  magnetifm,  and  fancied  I  fawfomething 
like  the  two  electricities  in  the  attraction  and  repuliion  of 

Z  the 

•  I  had  not  been  long  In  South- America  when  I  made  my  ohfetT^ations ;  foon  after  which, 
the  necefiiiry  avocations  of  my  profeflion,  together  with  that  relaxation  of  the  mental  powers 
generally  confcqucnt  upon  the  liiifitude  of  body  incident  to  the  inhabitants  of  warm  climates, 
indii'polcd  rae  to  the  farther  prorccutioa  of  experiments  I  am  uow  mortiiied  at  not  having  made. 


174  ACCOUNT  of  a  METEOR. 

the  two  poles.  I  have  amufed  myfelf  with  fuppofing  that 
magnetii'm  is  only  a  fpecies  of  eledlricity,  whofe  matter  is 
as  yet  not  diicovered  by  human  fight;  as  that  of  electrici- 
ty was,  when  a  few  years  ago,  it  was  perceivable  only  by 
its  effedts  in  attra£ting  or  repelling  light  bodies,  as  mag- 
netifm  now  is  in  attracting  or  repelling  iron.  Experi- 
ments by  which  polarity  may  be  given  to  needles  by  means 
of  electricity,  perhaps,  further  improved  and  clofely  at- 
tended to,  might  throw  great  light  on  this  fubjedt.  I  wifli 
we  had  more  cafes  ftated  of  the  effeds  of  lightening  and 
the  Aurora  Borealis  on  the  needle.  But  mentioning  the 
Aurora  Borealis  recalls  to  my  mind,  the  meteor  which  was 
feen  at  many  diftant  places  in  Virginia  on  the  3 1  ft  of  Oc- 
tober, at  about  ^  lo""  P.  M.  It  was  what  is  vulgarly 
called  a  falling  ftar.  It  fell  as  feen  at  Rofewell  about 
three  or  four  degrees  to  the  north  of  weft  and  left  a  bright 
trail  of  light  behind  it;  which  extended  from  the  horizon 
perpendicularly  above  7°;  unluckily  Iloft  a  viewof  it  when 
falling,  but  was  called  out  time  enough  to  fee  the  grand 
and  beautiful  appearance  of  its  trail  of  light.  It  was  feen 
for  near  15"',  it  was  as  bright  as  fhining  filver,  and  as  broad 
as  the  enlightened  part  of  the  new  moon,  when  firft  vifi- 
ble,  and  about  7^  in  length.  It  might  be  reprefented  by 
3N  °  I ,  when  I  firft  faw  it,  and  by  the 
other  figures  at  intervals  of  about  a  mi- 
nute after.  Juft  before  it  difappeared 
it  refembled  the  edge  of  a  cloud.  The 
fky  was  remarkably  clear  and  ferene. 
It  appeared  in  the  fame  manner  exact- 
ly to  feveral  gentlemen  above  an  hun- 
dred miles  from  Rofewell,  but  on  a  dif- 
ferent point  of  the  compafs.  I  have  not  yet  had  fo  accu- 
rate an  account  of  its  bearing  as  to  afcertain  its  height  and 
diftancc.     Did  you  fee  any  thing  of  it  ? 

I  am,  dear  fir,  yours  raoft  fmcerely, 

JOHN   PAGE. 


ACCOUNT  OF  A  METEOR.  175 

From  David  Ritten house,   Efqiilre^    to  John 
Page,  Efquire, 

Pliiladelphia,  January  i6,  i;8o. 
DEAR     SIR, 

^l'''i!^83?' T  DESIGN  to  give  you  my  thoughts  on  Mag- 
J.  netifm  in  fome  future  letter,  at  prefent  I  fliall 
confine  myielf  to  the  fubjedt  of  the  latter  part  of  yours  of 
the  4th  of  December  laft. 

The  extraordinary  Meteor  you  mention  was  likewifc 
vifible  here,  the  air  being  ferene  and  clear.  I  did  not  fee 
it  until  the  bright  ftreak  was  become  very  crooked,  it  then 
bore  S.  70°  W.  nearly,  from  Philadelphia,  and  comparing 
this  courfe  with  that  obferved  by  you,  I  find  it  muft  have 
fallen  on  or  near  the  Ouafiota  mountains  mentioned  in 
Lewis  Evans's  map,  about  480  miles  from  Philadelphia 
and  T,6^  from  Williamfburg.  And  taking  its  altitude  7,° 
as  obferved  by  you,  adding  2L.  degrees  for  the  depreffion 
of  that  place  below  your  horizon,  its  entire  apparent  alti- 
tude above  the  fpot  where  it  fell  was  9° 4-,  which,  on  a 
radius  of  2^^  miles,  will  be  61  miles  perpendicular  height. 
The  breadth  of  the  luminous  vapour  was,  I  think,  in  Ibme 
places,  when  I  faw  it,  not  lefs  than  a  quarter  of  a  degree; 
this  at  480  miles  diflance  muft  have  been  at  leaft  two  miles. 
It  was  certainly  a  grand  appearance  near  the  place  where 
it  fell.  If  any  human  eye  was  there. 

May  not  thefe  fhooting  ftars  be  bodies  altogether  foreign 
to  the  earth  and  its  atmofphere,  accidentally  meeting  with 
it  as  they  are  fwiftly  traverfing  the  great  void  of  fpace  ? 
And  may  they  not,  either  eledrically  or  by  fome  other 
means,  excite  a  luminous  appearance  on  entering  our  at- 
mofphere ?  I  am  inclined  to  this  opinion  for  the  following 
reafons  :  ift.  It  is  not  probable  that  meteors  fhould  be  ge- 
nerated in  the  air  at  the  height  of  50  or  60  miles,  on  ac- 
count of  its  extreme  rarenefs  ;  and  many  falling  ftars,  be- 
fides  this,  are  known  with  certainty  to  have  been  at  very 

Z  2  great 


iy6  ACCOUNT  of  a  METEOR. 

great  heights.  2dly.  Their  motions  cannot  be  owing  to 
gravity,  for  they  defcend  in  all  dired:ions,  and  but  feldom 
perpendicularly  to  the  horizon.  Befides,  their  velocities 
are  much  too  great.  This  meteor  would  not  have  fallen 
by  the  force  of  gravity,  from  the  place  where  it  firft  ap- 
peared, to  the  earth,  in  lefs  than  two  minutes  of  time ; 
nor  in  Icfs  than  ten  feconds,  if  we  fuppofe  it  impelled  by 
gravity  from  the  remoteft  diftance.  They  are  neverthe- 
lefs  affedled  by  gravity  in  fome  manner,  for  I  cannot  find 
that  any  one  was  ever  obferved  to  afcend  upwards  In  its 
courfe. 

It  is  true  that  difficulties  will  likewife  occur,  if  we  fup- 
pofe them  to  be  foreign  bodies  of  fufficient  denfity  to  pre- 
serve fuch  great  degrees  of  velocity  even  in  paffmg  through 
the  atmofphere,  for  it  may  be  afked  why  do  they  not  fre- 
quently ftrike  the  earth,  buildings,  &c. 

Perhaps  they  are  generally,  if  not  always,  exploded  in 
paffing  through  the  air,  fomething  in  the  manner  that 
filings  of  fteel  are  exploded  in  pafling  through  the  flame 
of  a  candle.  And  at  the  fame  time  that  they  afford  us . 
occafion  to  admire  the  variety  and  immenfity  of  the  Cre- 
ator's works,  they  may  perhaps  produce  fome  important 
and  neceflary  effects  in  the  atmofphere  furrounding  this 
globe,  for  the  welfare  of  man  and  its  other  innumerable 
tribes  of  inhabitants. 

I  am,  dear  fir,  your  afFeftlonate  friend. 

And  very  humble  fervant, 

DAVID  RITTENHOUSE. 


Defaiption 


[     177    ] 


N°  XV.. 

Defcript'ion  of  the  Grotto  at  Sivatara^  by  the  Rev.  PeteR' 

Miller,    of  Ephrata  ;    communicated  by  William 

Barton,  Efquire. 

Read  March  "AS  thc  courfe  of  my  letter  now  tends  this 
jr\^  way,  I  muft  remind  you,  if  ever  you 
fliould  publiih  a  natural  hiftory  of  Pennfylvania,  not  to 
confign  to  oblivion  that  very  curious  petrifying  cavern,  of 
which,  left  you  ftiould  not  have  feen  it  already,  I  {hall 
give  fome  deicription. 

"  It  is  fituate  on  the  eaft  fide  of  Swatara,  clofe  tb  the 
river.  Its  entrance  is  very  fpacious,  and  there  is  fome- 
what  of  a  deicent  towards  the  other  extremity  ;  infomuch 
that  I  fuppofe  the  furface  of  the  river  is  rather  higher  than 
the  bottom  of  the  cave.  The  upper  part  is  like  an  arched 
roof,  of  folid  lime-ftone  rock,  perhaps  twenty  feet  thick. 
On  entering,  are  found  many  apartments,  fome  of  them 
very  high,  like  the  choir  of  a  church..  There  is,  as  it 
were,  a  continual  rain  within  the  cave,  for  the  water  drops 
inceffantly  from  the  roof  upon  the  floor ;  by  which,  and 
the  water  petrifying  as  it  falls,  pillars  are  gradually  form- 
ed to  fupport  the  roof.  I  faw  this  cave  about  thirty  years 
ago,  and  obferved  above  ten  fuch  pillars,  each  fix  inches 
in  diameter  and  fix  feet  high  ;  all  fo  ranged  that  the  place 
inclofed  by  them  relembled  a  fauQuary  in  a  Roman  church : 
And  I  can  aflure  you,  that  no  royal  throne  ever  exhibited 
more  grandeur,  than  the  delightful  profpecl  of  this  lufus 
naturis.  Satisfied  with  the  view  of  this,  we  difcovered  the 
refemblances  of  feveral  monuments,  incorporated  into  the 
■walls,  as  if  the  bodies  of  departed  heroes  were  there  de- 
pofited.     Our  guide  then  conducted  us  to  a  place,  where,. 

he 


lyS         DESCRIPTION  of  a  GROTTO. 

he  faid,  hung  the  bell  :  This  is  a  piece  of  ftone  iflulng  out 
of  the  roof,  which  when  ftruck  founds  like  a  bell. 

"  Some  of  the  ftaladlites  are  of  a  colour  like  fugar-candy, 
and  others  refemble  loaf-fugar ;  but  it  is  a  pity  that  their 
beauty  is  now  almoft  deftroyed  by  the  country  people. 
The  water,  as  it  falls,  runs  down  the  declivity ;  and  it  is 
both  wholefome  and  pleafant  to  drink,  when  it  has  dif- 
charged  its  petrifying  matter.  It  is  remarkable  that  we 
found  feveral  holes  at  the  bottom  of  the  cave,  going  down 
perpendicularly,  perhaps  into  the  abyfs,  which  renders  it 
dangerous  to  be  without  a  light.  At  the  end  of  the  cave, 
there  is  a  pretty  run,  which  takes  its  courfe  through  part 
of  it,  and  then  lofes  itfelf  among  the  rocks  :  Here  is  alfo 
its  exit,  by  an  aperture  which  is  very  narrow.  Through 
this  the  vapours  continually  pafs  outwards,  with  a  ftrong 
current  of  air ;  and,  at  night,  thefe  vapours  afcending  re- 
femble a  great  furnace.  Part  of  thefe  vapours  and  fogs 
appear,  on  afcending,  to  be  condenfed  at  the  head  of  this 
great  alembic,  and  the  more  volatile  parts  to  be  carried 
off,  through  the  aperture  communicating  with  the  exterior 
air  before  mentioned,  by  the  force  of  the  air  in  its  paffage. 

"  I  beg  pardon  for  having  troubled  you  with  fuch  a  long 
detail.  It  appears  ftrange  to  me  that  none  of  our  philo- 
fophers  have  hitherto  publifhed  a  true  account  of  this  re- 
markable grotto." 


N°  XVI. 

An  Account  ofjome  Experiments  on  Magnet'ifm^  in  a  Letter 
/5  John  Page,  Efquire^  at  Williamsburg. 

D  E  A  R    S  I  R, 

Read  Feb.      A    G  R  E  E  A  B  L  E  to  the  promife  in  my  laft,  I 
.17  I-    j-^    Q\2\\  now  communicate  to  you  fome  conjec- 
tures and  experiments  on  magnetifm,  which  may  perhaps 

either 


-     EXPERIMENTS  in  MAGNETISM,     ijcy 

either  afford  you  fome  amufement,  or  induce  you  to  pur- 
fue  the  fubie<£l  to  more  certainty. 

I  luppoie  then,  that  magnetical  particles  of  matter  are 
a  neceffary  conftituent  part  of  that  metal  which  we  call 
iron,  though  they  are  probably  but  a  fmall  proportion  of 
the  whole  mafs.  Thefe  magnetical  particles  I  fuppofe 
have  each  a  north  and  a  fouth  pole,  and  that  they  retain 
their  polarity,  however  the  metal  may  be  fufed  or  other- 
wife  wrought.  In  a  piece  of  iron  which  fhews  no  figns  of 
magnetifm  thefe  magnetical  particles  lie  irregularly,  with 
their  poles  pointing  in  all  poffible  diredlions,  they  there- 
fore mutually  deftroy  each  other's  effects.  By  giving 
magnetifm  to  a  piece  of  iron  we  do  nothing  more  than 
arrange  thefe  particles,  and  when  this  is  done  it  depends 
on  the  temper  and  fituation  of  the  iron  whether  that  ar- 
rangement fhall  continue,  that  is,  whether  the  piece  of 
metal  fliall  remain  for  a  long  time  magnetical  or  not. 

There  is  fome  power,  whencefoever  derived,  diff"ufed 
through  every  part  of  fpace  which  we  have  accefs  to, 
which  adls  on  thefe  magnetical  particles,  impelling  one  of 
their  poles  in  a  certain  direction  with  refped:  to  the  earth 
and  the  other  pole  in  the  oppofite  diredtion.  The  direc- 
tion in  which  this  power  ad:s  I  take  to  be  the  fame  with 
that  of  the  dipping  needle. 

By  applying  a  magnet  to  a  piece  of  iron  it  becomes 
magnetical;  for  the  magnet  acting  ftrongly  on  the  above 
mentioned  particles,  that  a£tion  arranges  them  properly; 
overcoming  the  refiftance  of  the  furrounding  parts  of  the 
iron,  and  this  refiftance  afterwards  ferves  to  fecure  them  in 
their  proper  fituations,  and  prevents  their  being  deranged 
by  any  little  accident. 

If  we  place  a  piece  of  iron  in  or  near  the  dire£lion  of 
the  dipping  needle,  it  will  in  time  become  magnetical;- 
that  general  power  producing  in  this  cafe  the  fame  effed: 
as  the  application  of  the  magnet,  though  in  a  weaker 
degree. 

Iron'. 


iSo     EXPERIMENTS  in  MAGNETISM. 

Iron  or  foft  fleel  receives  magnetiim  ^more  eafily  than 
hardened  fteel,  but  will  not  retain  it;  may  not  this  be,  be- 
caufe  the  magnetical  particles  are  not  fo  clofely  confined  in 
foft  as  in  hardened  fteel,  and  on  that  account  more  cafily 
admit  of  arrangement  or  derangement.  By  making  a 
piece  of  fteel  red  hot,  or  by  twitting  it  or  beating  it  with 
a  hammer,  we  may  efi'ediually  deftroy  its  magnetifm. 
Now  all  thefe  operations  certainly  derange  the  particles 
which  compofe  the  bar.  By  rubbing  one  piece  of  fteel 
with  another,  magnetifm  may  be  produced,  and  it  is  eafy 
to  conceive  how  this  operation,  by  the  tremulous  motion 
which  it  excites,  may  contribute  to  arrange  the  magneti- 
cal particles. 

"We  took  a  foft  fteel  ramrod,  which  did  not  difcover  the 
leaft  fign  of  magnetifm,  and  holding  it  in  the  direction  of 
the  dipping  needle,  ftruck  it  feveral  fmart  blows  with  a 
hammer,  on  one  end ;  then  laying  it  on  a  watch  chryftal  it 
traverfed  very  well;  that  end  which  was  held  downwards, 
when  ftruck,  becoming  a  north  pole,  whether  the  ftroke 
was  applied  to  the  upper  or  the  lower  end.  By  turning 
the  fouth  end  downwards  and  ftriking  it  afrefti,  the  mag- 
netifm was  deftroyed  or  reverled,  and  it  was  curious  to 
oblerve  how  very  nicely  you  muft  adjuft  the  number  and 
force  of  the  ftrokes,  precifely  to  deftroy  the  magnetifm  be- 
fore communicated,  without  giving  it  anew,  in  a  contrary 
direction.  When  we  held  the  ra'mrod  diredlly  acrofs  the 
line  of  the  dipping  needle,  whilft  it  was  ftruck  with  a 
hammer,  on  many  trials  it  did  not  difcover  any  figns  of 
magnetifm.  But  when  held  in  any  other  diredion,  that 
end  which  approached  neareft  to  the  point  which  the  lower 
end  of  the  dipping  needle  tends  to,  always  became  the 
north  pole.  From  all  this  does  it  not  feem  very  probable 
that  during  the  concuflion  of  the  ftroke,  and  whilft  the 
magnetical  particles  of  the  rod  were  moft  difengaged  from 
the  furrounding  matter,  the  a£tive  power  abovementioned 
feized   them   and  arranged  them  properly,   where  being 

confined. 


EXPERIMENTS  m  MAGNETISM.      i8i 

confined,  the  rod  afterwards  remained  magnetical.  All 
this  is  neverthelefs  little  more  than  conjecture,  until  con- 
firmed by  further  experiments. 

I  am,  dear  fir,  yours,  &c. 

DAVID  RITTENHOUSE. 


N°  XVII. 

Neuo  Method  of  placing  a  Meridian  Mark^  in  a  ^Letter  to 

the  Rev.  Dr.  EwiNG,  Prouojl  of  the  Univerjity.     By 

D.   RiTTEN  HOUSE,    Efquirc. 

DEAR     SIR, 

Read  Nov.  ^*  OME  time  ago  I  mentioned  to  you  a  new  in- 
''^  ^'  ^^  vention  I  had  for  fixing  a  Meridian  Mark  for 
my  Obfervatory.  This  I  have  fince  executed,  and  as  it 
anfwers  perfectly  well,  I  fhall  give  you  a  particular  de- 
fcription  of  it. 

When  my  obfervatory  was  firfl:  ereded,  I  placed  a  me- 
ridian mark  to  the  northward  at  the  diftance  of  about  1 200 
feet,  my  view  to  the  fouth  being  too  much  confined  by 
adjacent  buildings,  and  that  to  the  north  was  not  diftant 
enough  to  have  the  mark  free  from  a  fenfible  parallax. 
But  laft  fummer  a  new  brick  houfe  was  built  dired:ly  north 
of  the  obfervatory,  and  much  too  nigh  for  diftant  vifion 
with  the  tranfit  inftrument.  Now  though  a  fixed  mark  is 
not  abfolutely  nccelTary  where  you  have  a  good  tranfit  in- 
ftrument, the  pofition  of  which  may  be  examined  and  ac- 
curately corrected,  if  neceflary,  every  fair  day,  by  the 
paftage  of  the  pole-ftar  above  and  below  the  pole,  it  is  ne- 
verthelefs very  convenient,  faves  much  trouble,  and  may 
fometimes  prevent  miftakes.  We  have  an  inftance  in  the 
obfervations  of  the  Aftronomer  Royal  at  Greenwich.     His 

A  a  mark 


iS2  NEW  METHOD  of  placing  a 

mark  being  taken  down  at  repairing  the  building  to  which 
it  was  fecured,  the  tranfit  inftiument  was  accidentally- 
thrown  out  of  its  true  pofition,  and  the  obfervations  with 
it  were  continued  for  a  confiderable  time  before  the  error 
was  detected.  My  meridian  mark  being  thus  rendered 
ufelefs,  I  contrived  feveral  other  methods  of  fiipplying  its 
pkce,  all  of  which  were,  on  fufficient  deliberation,  reject- 
ed for  the  following. 

I  faftened  the  objedl  glafs  of  a  thirty  fix  feet  telefcope, 
firmly,  to  the  wall  which  fupports  the  tranfit  inftrument, 
oppofite  to  and  as  near  as  convenient  to  the  objedt  glafs  of 
the  tranfit,  when  brought  to  a  horizontal  fituation.  In 
the  focus  of  the  thirty  fix  feet  objedl  glafs  I  fcrewed  faft  a 
piece  of  brafs  to  a  block  of  marble,  fupported  by  a  brick 
pillar  built  on  a  good  foundation,  for  this  purpofe,  in  my 
garden.  On  this  piece  of  brafs  are  feveral  black  concen- 
tric circles;  the  rell  of  the  plate  is  filvered.  The  diverg- 
ing rays  of  light  which  proceed  from  every  point  in  thefe 
circles,  after  pafling  through  the  thirty-fix  feet  glafs  be- 
come parallel,  and  entering  the  tranfit  inftrument,  an  image 
of  the  plate  and  its  circles  is  formed  in  the  fame  place 
where  the  images  of  ftars  or  the  moft  diftant  objefts  are 
formed.  The  circles  are  therefore  diftindtly  feen  through 
the  tranfit,  and  being  placed  in  the  fame  meridian  with 
the  centre  of  the  thirty  fix  feet  glafs,  the  innermoft  circle, 
about  the  fize  of  a  brevier  c,  ferves  for  a  meridian  mark, 
to  the  centre  whereof  the  crofs  hair,  of  the  tranfit  may  be 
nicely  adjufted. 

This  mark  is  in  feveral  refpe<Sls  preferable  to  one  placed 
in  the  common  way.  It  is  entirely  free  from  parallax, 
which  the  other  cannot  be,  unlefs  placed  at  a  very  great 
diftance,  when  glafles  of  great  magnifying  powers  are 
ufed.  It  is  not  fenfibly  affected  by  the  undulation  of  the 
air,  which  very  often  renders  it  impoffible  to  fet  the  tran- 
fit accurately  to  a  diftant  mark.  And  it  can  be  illuminat- 
ed at  night  without  difficulty,  fliould  the  fufpicion  of  any 

accident 


MERIDIAN     MARK.  183 

accident  to  the  tranfit  make  it  neceflary.  But  It  has  like- 
wife  one  difadvantage.  Should  the  pillar  in  fetiling,  carry 
the  mark  a  little  to  the  eaft  or  weft,  the  error  will  be 
greater  in  proportion  to  its  nearnefs. 

I  am,  dear  fir,  your  humble  fervant, 

DAVID  RITTENHOUSE. 

P.  S.  The  great  improvement  of  objed:  glafTes  by  Dol- 
laud  has  enabled  us  to  apply  eye  glaftes  of  fo  fliort  a  fo- 
cus, that  it  is  difficult  to  find  any  fubftance  proper  for  the 
crofs  hairs  of  fixed  inftruments.  For  fome  years  paft  I 
have  ufed  a  fingle  filament  of  filk,  without  knowing  that 
the  fame  was  made  ufe  of  by  the  European  aftronomers,  as 
I  have  lately  found  it  is  by  Mr.  Hirfchell.  But  this  fub- 
ftance, though  far  better  than  wires  or  hairs  of  any  kind, 
is  ftill  much  too  coarfe  for  fome  obfervations.  A  fingle 
filament  of  filk  will  totally  obfcure  a  fmall  ftar,  and  that 
for  feveral  feconds  of  time,  if  the  ftar  be  near  the  pole.  I 
have  lately  with  no  fmall  difficulty  placed  the  thread  of  a 
fpider  in  fome  of  my  inftruments,  it  has  a  beautiful  effect, 
it  is  not  one  tenth  of  the  fize  of  the  thread  of  the  filkworm, 
and  is  rounder  and  more  evenly  of  a  thicknefs.  I  have 
hitherto  found  no  inconvenience  from  the  ufe  of  it,  and 
believe  it  will  be  lafting,  it  being  more  than  four  months 
fince  I  firft  put  it  in  my  tranfit  telefcope,  and  it  continues 
fully  extended,  and  free  from  knots  or  particles  of  duft. 


N°  XVIII. 

Account  of  a  Worm  in  a  Horfe^s  Eye,   by  V.  Ho  p- 
K I  N  S  O  N,  Efquire. 

Read  Sep.  T  TTAVING  been  myfelf  a  witnefs  to  the  fol- 
26,1783.  JJ^  lowing  curious  fad,    I   thought  it  (hould 

A  a  2  not 


1 84         ACCOUNT  or  a  WORM  in  a 

not  pafs  unrecorded,  efpecially  as  it  occurred  in  this  city, 
under  the  immediate  notice  of  the  Philofophical  Society. 

A  report  prevailed  laft  fummer  that  a  horfe  was  to  be 
feen  which  had  a  living  ferpent  in  one  of  his  eyes.  At 
firft  I  difregarded  this  report,  but  numbers  of  my  acquain- 
tance, who  had  been  to  fee  the  horfe,  confirming  the  ac- 
count, I  had  the  curiofity  to  go  myfelf,  taking  a  friend 
along  with  me.  The  horfe  was  kept  in  Arch-ftreet  and 
belonged  to  a  free  negroe.  I  examined  the  eye  with 
all  the  attention  in  my  power,  being  no  ways  difpofed  to 
credit  the  common  report,  but  rather  expecting  to  de- 
tect a  fraud  or  vulgar  prejudice;  I  was  much  furprifed, 
however,  to  fee  a  real  living  worm  within  the  ball  of  the 
horfe's  eye.  This  worm  was  of  a  clear  white  colour,  in 
fize  and  appearance  much  like  a  piece  of  fine  bobbin;  it 
feemed  to  be  from  2^  to  3  inches  in  length,  which  how- 
ever, could  not  be  duly  afcertained,  its  whole  length  ne- 
ver appearing  at  one  time,  but  only  fuch  a  portion  as  could 
be  feen  through  the  iris,  which  was  greatly  dilated.  The 
creature  was  in  a  conftant  lively  vermicular  motion;  fome- 
times  retiring  fo  deep  into  the  eye  as  to  become  totally  in- 
vifible,  and  at  other  times  approaching  fo  near  to  the  iris 
as  to  become  plainly  and  diftinctly  feen;  at  leaft  fo  much 
of  it  as  was  within  the  field  of  the  iris.  I  could  not  diftin- 
guifh  its  head,  neither  end  being  perfedlly  exhibited  whilft 
I  viewed  it,  and  indeed  its  motion  was  fo  brifk  and  con- 
ftant, that  fo  nice  a  fcrutiny  was  not  to  be  expe£ted.  The 
horfe's  eye  was  exceedingly  enflamed,  fwoln  and  running; 
I  mean  the  mufcles  contiguous  to  the  eye  ball,  and  feemed 
to  give  him  great  pain;  fo  that  it  was  with  much  difficulty 
the  eye  could  be  kept  open  for  more  than  a  few  feconds 
at  a  time;  and  I  was  obliged  to  watch  favourable  moments 
for  a  diftindt  view  of  his  tormentor.  I  believe  the  horfe 
was  quite  blind  in  that  eye,  for  it  appeared  as  if  all  the 
humours  were  confounded  together,  and  that  the  worm 
had  the  whole  orb  to  range  in,  which,  however,  was  not 

of 


H  O  R  S  E's      EYE.  185 

of  a  diameter  fufficient  for  the  worm  to  extend  its  full 
length,  as  far  as  I  could  difcover.  The  humours  of  the 
eye  were  beginning  to  grow  opake  like  a  chilled  jelly,  and 
became  altogether  fo  afterwards,  as  I  was  informed. 

As  this  is  a  very  uncommon  circumftance  and  may  af- 
fedl  fome  philofophical  do£lrines,  it  is  much  to  be  lament- 
ed that  the  horfe  had  not  been  purchafed,  and  the  eye 
diflcdled  for  better  examination.  That  there  was  a  living, 
felf-moving  worm  within  the  ball  of  the  horfe's  eye,  free 
from  all  deception  or  miftake,  I  am  moft  confident.  How 
this  worm  got  there,  or  if  bred  in  fo  remarkable  a  place, 
where  its  parents  came  from,  or  how  they  contrived  to 
depofite  their  fcmen  or  convey  their  egg  into  the  eye  of 
an  horfe,  I  leave  for  others  to  determine. 


N°  XIX. 

Jn  improved  Method  of  ^lilUng  a  Harpfichordt    by 
F.  Hoi-KINSON,  Efquire. 

Read  Dec.  "^  /I'UCH  of  the  pleafurc  and  effed:  in  perform- 
5, 1-  J.  J^yJ_  ing  on  a  harpfichord  depends  on  the  equa- 
lity of  what  is  called  the  touch  ;  and  this  is  principally- 
owing  to  a  continuance  of  uniformity  in  the  fpring  of  the 
little  quills,  which  by  their  impulfe  fet  the  firings  in  vi- 
bration. Thefe  quills,  in  the  prefent  manner  of  applying^ 
them,  will  not  retain  their  elafticity  for  any  length  of 
time,  but  require  conllant  repair  ;  which  is  one  of  the  moft 
trou'blefome  and  difficult  operations  in  keeping  the  inftru- 
ment  in  order.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  I  have 
fought  for  a  fubftitute  for  the  crow  quill,  and  tried  a  va- 
riety of  fubftances,  but  without  fuccefs.  I  then  confider- 
ed  w;hether  an  improvement  might  not  be  made  in  the 
application  of  the  quills  themfelves,  and  to  this  purpofe  I 

examined 


iS6  IMPROVEMENT  IN  THE 

examined  the  caufe  of  the  quills  being  fo  liable  to  break, 
and  obferved  that  the  piece  of  quill  is  thruft  through  a 
fmall  hole  in  the  tongue  of  the  jack,  projecting  only  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  beyond  the  face  of  the  tongue  :  That 
this  quill  is  too  fhort  to  yield  in  all  its  parts,  and  fo  adt 
.properly  as  a  fpring ;  but  bends  only  at  the  place  where 
jt  iflTues  from  the  hole  in  the  tongue,  and  works  up  and 
down  as  upon  a  hinge,  in  that  place;  and  there  only  is  the 
quill  ever  known  to  break. 

Thus  in  Plate  III,  Figure  6,  a.,  is  the  tongue,  b,  the 
quill  fixed  firmly  in  it,  which  being  too  fhort  to  a£t  fairly 
as  a  fpring,  will  bend  only  at  c,  when  it  is  forced  to  pafs 
the  firing  ;  and  by  repeated  exercife  muft  neceifarily  break 
in  that  part,  as  any  fpring  would  do  if  compelled  to  a£t 
in  the  fame  manner. 

But  if  this  quill  could  be  made  longer,  or  applied  fo 
that  its  fpring  ihould  be  part  of  a  curve,  it  would  proba- 
bly preferve  its  elaflicity  for  any  length  of  time,  as  other 
fprings  do. 

To  effeft  this  I  have  conftrudled  the  tongue  and  applied 
the  quill  as  reprefented  in  figure  7,  where  «,  is  the  tongue, 
the  top  of  which  is  rounded  off ;  the  quill  is  firmly  fix- 
ed in  the  hole  at  c,  as  ufual,  but  inftead  of  paffmg  through 
a  length  fufficient  to  flrikc  the  firing,  it  is  cut  off  even 
with  the  face  of  the  tongue  aty^  The  quill  thus  fixed 
with  its  polifhed  face  downwards,  is  bent  upward  round 
the  top  of  the  tongue,  and  then  proceeds  horizontally  the 
proper  length  ;  being  kept  in  the  horizontal  pofition  by 
the  little  wire  ftaple  Cy  being  firmly  driven  into  holes  drill- 
ed for  the  purpofe,  but  not  fo  far  as  to  pinch  the  quill 
againft  the  top  of  the  tongue  ;  a  little  fpace  being  left  for 
the  quill  to  play  in. 

From  this  confi;ru£tion  it  is  manifefl,  that  the  fpring  of 
the  quill  will  be  in  its  whole  length,  but  chiefly  in  the 
curve  c,  d ;  and  that  a  quill  fo  applied  will  adt  fairly  as  a 
fpring,  and  may  be  expedted   to  retain  its  elafticity  for 

years, 


HARPSICHORD.  187 

years,  fubjedt  to  no  variations  but  fuch  as  may  be  occafi- 
oned  by  alterations  in  ibe  ftate  of  tbe  air,  to  which  all 
known  fubflances  are  more  or  lefs  liable. 


RaA,  j]s;j  the  beginning  of  lafi:  winter,  I  had  the  honour  to 
lay  before  the  fociety  an  improved  method  of  quilling 
a  H.ARPSiCHORD..  Wiihing  to  bring  my  difcovery  to  the 
tefl  of  full  experiment  and  to  the  judgment  of  abler  critics, 
I  forwarded  a  defcription  and  a  model  of  my  improvement 
to  a  friend  in  London,  requefting  that  it  might  be  fubmitted 
to  the  examination  of  proper  judges,  and  diredling,  in 
cafe  it  fliould  be  approved  of,  that  an  inftrument  made  by 
one  of  the  firft  artifts  and  quilled  according  to  my  pro- 
pofed  method,  fhould  be  fent  to  me.  I  have  accordingly 
received  an  excellent  double  harplichord,  made  by  MelTrs 
Shudi  and  Broadivood  of  London,  and  quilled  according 
to  my  method;  with  this  difference,  I  had  rounded  off  the 
top  of  the  tongue,  and  bending  the  quill  over  it,  kept  it  in  a 
horizontal  pofition  by  means  of  a  fmall  wire  ftaple;  as 
will  be  more  fully  underftood  by  referring  to  my  former 
defcription.  But  Mr.  Broadivood  has  left  the  tongue  of 
its  full  length  and  ufual  form :  But  made  the  hole,  in 
which  the  quill  is  commonly  fixed  tight,  fo  large,  that  the 
quill  has  free  room  to  play  therein;  and  then  fixing  the 
quill  below,  has  bent  it  round  and  brought  it  through 
this  hole;  which  renders  a  ftaple  unneceffary;  the  top  of 
the  tongue  anfwering  the  fame  purpofe.  The  principle 
on  which  the  improvement  depends  is  the  fame  in  both; 
but  his  is  the  beft  method  of  executing  it. 

He  informs,  however,  that  one  inconvenience  occurs 
viz.  the  quills  being  fo  forcibly  bent  in  the  curved  part, 
are  liable,  in  fome  inftances,  to  fpring  back,  and  fo  be- 
come not  only  too  fhort  to  reach  the  ftring  it  fliould  ftrike, 
but  the  projection  of  the  curve  will  be  apt  to  touch  the 
ftring  behind  it,  when  the  ftop  is  pullied  back. 

To 


i88  IMPROVEMENT  in  the 

To  explain  this,  let  a,  b,  figure  8,  reprefent  the  tongue, 
c,  d.,  e,  the  quill,  firmly  fixed  at  c,  then  bent  upwards  and 
brought  through  a  hole,  which  is  large  enough  for  the 
quill  to  play  freely  therein.  But  the  curved  part  of  the 
quill  at  (t/,  being  fo  forcibly  bent,  will  in  fome  inftances 
fpring  back  (as  reprefented  in  the  figure)  not  keeping  clofe 
to  the  back  of  the  tongue,  as  it  fhould  do:  And  as  there 
is  no  wafte  room,  the  curve  d,  will  be  apt  to  touch  the  firing 
behind  it,  when  the  il:op  is  pufhed  back,  I  acknowledge 
that  this  inconvenience  occurs  in  fome  few  inftances  in  the 
inftrument  Mr.  Bt'oadivood  has  fcnt  me;  but  would  ob- 
ferve  that  as  it  does  not  ahvays  happen,  it  is  a  fault  in  the 
execution  and  not  in  the  principle.  Yet,  as  it  may  be  dif- 
ficult to  guard  againft  it,  I  have  confidered  how  this  evil 
may  be  effectually  prevented. 

Inflead  of  punching  the  finall  hole,  in  which  the  quill 
is  to  be  fixed,  ftraight  through  the  tongue,  let  it  be  punch- 
ed flanting  downwards;  this  will  relieve  the  quill  from 
that  ftrained  pofition  which  caufes  it  to  fpring  back.  Ac- 
cording to  the  firft  mode  of  application  the  curve  formed 
by  the  quill  will  be  as  at  a,  figure  9,  in  the  fecond  as  at  b. 
I  have  conftrudted  many  tongues  in  this  way,  and  found 
none  of  them  liable  to  the  inconvenience  complained  of, 
or  {hewing  any  tendency  whatever  to  fpring  back;  but  to 
remove  all  jealoufy  on  this  head,  fhould  any  remain,  it 
will  be  eafy  to  drive  a  fmall  wire  flaple  againft  the  bottom 
of  the  curve  behind,  which  muft  effedually  retain  it  clofe 
to  the  back  of  the  tongue. 

I  mention  this  expedient  of  the  wire  ftaple  merely  with 
a  view  of  removing  all  doubt;  but  I  do  not  think  it  ne- 
ceffary;  the  objedion  being  perfedly  remedied  by  the 
other  method :  To  prove  this,  I  have  cut  out  the  entire 
block  between  the  two  holes,  in  the  manner  of  a  mortife, 
and  drove  a  pin  acrofs  the  upper  part  of  it.  I  then  caufed 
the  quill  to  lie  in  this  flanting  mortife,  and  bending  it 
round  brought  it  over  the  pin;  and  I  found  it  would  re- 
main 


HARPSICHORD.  189 

main  perfedly  at  eafe  in  its  birth,  although  not  pinched  or 
reftrained  in  any  part;  a,  figure  10,  rcprcfents  the  tongue 
in  front,  and  b,  the  mortife,  of  which  the  flanting  fhape 
cannot  be  feen  in  this  view;  but  will  be  better  underftood 
by  obferving  the  pofition  of  the  quill  in  figure  1 1,  where 
fl  is  a  profile  of  the  fame  tongue,  b-,  c,  the  quill  lying  in 
the  mortife,  and  d,  the  pin  over  which  the  top  of  the  quill 
paffes. 

I  have  need  to  apologize  to  the  fociety  for  diredting  (o 
much  of  their  attention,  to  an  objedl  which  may  appear  to 
fome  to  be  of  little  importance.  To  the  mufical  tribe, 
however,  this  improvement  will  prefent  itfelf  in  a  differ- 
ent light.  Many  perfons  who  play  very  well  on  the 
harpfichord,  are  not  able  to  keep  the  inftrument  in  order: 
And  to  fend  for  a  perfon  to  repair  the  quills  and  tune  the 
inftrument  as  often  as  it  fhall  be  neceflary,  is  not  only 
troublefome  and  expenfive,  but  fuch  alliftance  is  not  al- 
ways to  be  had,  efpecially  in  the  country.  And  for  thefe 
reafons  many  a  good  harpfichord  or  fpinnet  lies  negledl- 
ed  and  the  fcholar  loofes  the  opportunity  of  pradlice.  To 
fuch  perfons  a  method  of  quilling  that  fhall  feldom  want 
repair  is  a  d'lfideratum  of  no  fmall  importance.  And  this, 
I  flatter  myfclf  I  have  accomplillied. 

The  difficulty  of  quilling  being  thus  removed,  I  confi- 
dered  in  what  manner  tuning  r.;ight  be  made  eafy  to  the 
pradlitioner  in  mufic.  Harpficiiords  are  tuned  by  means  of 
fifths  and  thirds;  but  fuch  is  the  mufical  divifion  of  the 
monochord  as  to  make  it  neceffary,  that  none  ofthekjifths 
or  thirds  fhould  be  perfedt;  an  allowance  muft  be  made; 
and  to  do  this  with  judgment,  fo  that  the  chords  may  be 
good  and  the  inftrument  be  in  tune,  requires  much  atten- 
tion and  pradlice.  Of  the  numbers  that  play,  there  will 
not  be  found  one  in  an  hundred  that  can  tune  a  harpfi- 
chord. To  render  this  tafk  eafy,  I  have  procured  trwelve 
timing  forks,  for  the  t'a>el'ue  femitones  of  the  octave  ;  thefe 
I  had  perfedly  tuned;  and  as  they  will  not  be  fenfibly  af- 

B  b  fcfted 


I90  IMPROVEMENT  in  the 

fedled  by  any  change  of  weather,  they  remain  as  ftandards, 
1  take  it  for  granted  that  any  perfon  at  all  accuflomed  to 
mufical  founds  can  tell  when  one  tone  is  in  7inijbn  with 
another;  and  that  a  very  little  pradice  will  enable  him  to 
tune  one  found  an  ofiave  to  another,  thefe  conchords  are  fo 
manifeft  that  they  cannot  eafily  be  miftaken.  There  is  then 
nothing  to  be  done  but  to  tune  the  twelve  firings  in  uni- 
fon  with  the  twelve  forks  ;  this  will  fix  the  fcale,  or  tem- 
perature for  one  odave,  which  is  the  whole  difficulty  ;  the 
reft  of  the  inftrument  is  eafily  tuned  by  unifons  and  oc- 
taves to  the  fcale,  fo  afcertained*. 

Having,  I  hope,  fully  accomplifhed  the  defign  I  had  in 
view  when  I  turned  my  thoughts  to  this  fubjed,  I  fhall 
now  take  leave  of  it ;  and  fhall  be  highly  gratified  if  I 
find  others  benefited  by  my  attentions,  although  in  a  mat- 
ter of  no  very  ferious  import. 
Nov.  1784. 


Defer iption  of  a  further   Impro'veinent  in  the  Harp- 
sichord. 


Rei 

2 


•'^J^""^''y  IN  a  former  paper  read  before  the  fociety, 
refpeding  an  improved  method  of  quilling  a 
Harpsichord,  I  made  fome  apology  for  troubling  you 
with  a  fubjed  not  ftridly  within  the  limits  of  your  view 
as  a  philofophical  fociety,  and  which  might  appear  to  fome 
of  fmall  importance.  At  the  fame  time  I  took  formal  leave 
of  a  purfuit  which  had  accidentally  engaged  my  attention, 
and  which  I  had  obtruded  upon  your's.  Notwithftanding 
this,  I  find  myfelf  under  a  neceffity  ot  again  requefting 
your  indulgence,  whilft  I  defcribe  a  difcovery  I  made  in 
Auguft  laft,  of  a  flill  further  improvement  to  the  fame 
purpol'e.  ' 


Having; 


My  fct  of  forks  are  tuned  fiom  the  middle  C  (harp  to  the  C  ahove,  iuchifive, 


HARPSICHORD.  191 

Having  fucceeded  to  the  extent  of  my  expedatlon  in  a 
more  advantageous  way  of  applying  the  crow  quill  in  com- 
mon ufe  in  a  harpfichord,  I  thought  to  reft  content  with 
that  improvement;  which  had  principally  for  its  obje£l  the 
duration  of  the  quill's  elafticity,  and  of  courfe  the  durati- 
on of  the  equality  of  touch.  But  notwithftanding  the 
long  eftablifhed  prejudice  in  favour  of  the  crow  quill,  and 
the  prevailing  opinion  that  no  fubftance  can  fupply  its 
place  to  advantage,  I  think  a  candid  critic  will  allow  that 
one  of  the  following  pofitions  is  founded  in  fadl,  and  the 
other  in  reafon. 

Firjl.  Although  the  three  flops  of  a  harpfichord  fliould 
be  quilled  to  the  heft  advantage,  the  refult  of  the  whole 
will  be  an  obfervable  iingle  or  tinkling  between  the  quills 
and  wires,  which  depreciates  the  dignity  and  fweetnefs  of 
the  inftrument.  The  beft  harpfichords  are  fo  cenfurable 
for  this  imperfctftion,  that  the  Forte  Piano,  which  is  free 
from  it,  ftands  a  chance  of  rivalling  that  noble  inftrument, 
for  this  caufe  only ;  being  far  inferior  in  every  other 
refpedl. 

Second.  Is  it  not  reafonable  to  fuppofe  that  fo  long  a 
ftring,  fo  advantageoufly  ftretched  over  fo  large  a  box, 
Ihould  yield  a  greater  body  of  tone,  than  that  which  is 
produced  by  the  impulfe  of  a  quill  ?  If  the  quill  be  made 
very  ftiff,  this  will  render  the  touch  difagreeable  and  en- 
creafe  the  jingle,  but  not  add  to  the  body  of  tone.  One 
reafon  why  the  quill  does  not  draw  a  fuller  tone  from  the 
ftring,  I  fuppofe  to  be  the  fmallnefs  of  its  contact.  The 
back  of  a  quill  is  a  portion  of  a  circle,  the  extended  ftring 
is  a  right  line,  and  a  circle  can  touch  a  right  line  only  in 
a  point ;  the  contail  therefore  muft  be  fo  very  fmall,  that 
mere  ftrength  of  impulfe  is  not  fufficient  to  put  the  ftring 
into  full  vibration. 

The  method  I  am  now  to  defcribe  of  quilling,  or  rather 
tonguing  a  harpfichord,  I  have  found  by  experiment,  to 
draw  forth  the  powers  of  the  inftrument  to  a  furprifing 

B  b  2  effect, 


192  IMPROVEMENT  in  the 

efFed;,  caufmg  it  to  yield  a  full  and  pure  body  of  tone,, 
free  from  all  jingle  and  very  pleafant  to  the  ear. 

N.  B.  What  hath  hitherto  been  called  the  tongue  of  the 
jack,  I  lliall  denominate  the  palate ;  and  the  fubftltute  I 
have  made  for  the  quill,  I  Ihall  call  the  tongue.  The 
propriety  of  this  will  appear  in  the  defcription. 

Let  A,  figure  1 2,  reprefent  the  palate  in  front. 
Mate  III.  .^^,jjj^  ^  mortife  cut  through  it  for  the  tongue  to 
work  in.  B,  is  the  tongue,  having  two  fmall  holes 
drilled  through  it,  one  in  the  centre  of  its  motion  and  the 
other  at  a  little  diftance  behind,  for  the  reception  of  one 
end  of  a  wire  fpring  hereafter  mentioned. 

Figure  1 3,  is  the  palate  in  profile,  with  the  tongue  pro- 
perly mounted  and  moveable  on  the  centre  pin.  This 
figure  alfo  fhews  how  the  palate  muft  be  hollowed  in  be- 
hind to  expofe  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  the  fmall  hole 
in  it  for  the  reception  of  one  end  of  the  wire  fpring. 

Figure  14,  is  a  back  view  of  the  palate,  fhewing  the 
groove  in  which  the  hair  fpring  of  the  jack  lies,  and  a, 
fmall  wire  ftaple  at  b,  to  which  the  lower  end  of  the  fteel 
fpring  is  to  be  faflened. 

Figure  15,  is  the  fpring  which  is  to  govern  the  tongue. 
It  muft  be  of  fine  fteel  wire,  fomewhat  annealed  by  being 
forcibly  rubbed  between  pieces  of  leather  or  cork,  and  is 
formed  by  winding  the  vv'ire  backwards  and  forwards  with 
a  tight  hand,  over  pins  driven  deep  and  firm  into  a  piece 
of  wood.  As  the  palate  muft  play  freely  within  the  fork 
or  jaws  of  the  jack,  the  windings  of  the  fpring  muft  not 
exceed  the  width  of  the  palate.  The  upper  end  of  the 
fpring  being  run  through  the  fmall  hole  in  the  root  of  the 
tongue'and  bent  round,  fo  as  to  fecure  it,  and  the  fuper- 
fluous  part  cut  off;  the  lower  end  ofthefime  fpring  muft 
be  run  under  the  little  ftaple  [b-,  figure  14,)  and  bent  up- 
wards with  a  gentle  ftrain,  fo  as  to  hook  it  on  and  fecure  it 
to  that  ftaple  ;  the  fpring  will  then  operate  with  all  its 
elafticity,  and  the  tongue  will  be  fubjedled  to  its  operation. 

Figure 


HARPSICHORD.  195 

Figure  1 7,  reprefents  the  palate  in  a  back  view  with  the 
zig  zag  fpring  fattened  by  one  end  to  the  root  of  the  tongue, 
and  by  the  other  to  the  little  ftaple. 

To  prevent  the  tongue  from  rifing  by  the  force  of  the 
fpring  above  a  horizontal  pofition,  there  muft  be  a  wire 
ftaple  driven  in  the  front  of  the  palate  immediately  above 
the  tongue  (as  at  a,  in  figure  12  and  13;)  and  the  tongue, 
if  of  wood,  fhould  be  armed  with  a  fmall  piece  of  foft  lea- 
ther juft  under  the  ftaple,  to  prevent  noife. 

It  muft  be  left  to  future  experiment  to  determine  the 
moft  proper  of  all  fubftances  of  which  the  tongue  fliould 
be  made;  different  fubftances  drawing  diff"erent  tones  from 
the  ftring.  After  many  effays  to  thin  purpofe,  I  have  con- 
cluded to  furnifli  my  harpfichord  in  the  following  manner. 

The  tongues  of  the  firft  unifon  are  of  DenJ'olc-lcather. 
Thofe  of  the  fecond  are  of  a  foft  leather  faced  with  Mo- 
rocco, fuch  as  is  frequently  ufed  in  harpfichords,  though 
applied  in  a  different  way,  and  the  tongues  of  the  odave 
are  of  wood,  fuch  as  pear  tree,  laurel,  or  any  wood  of  au 
even  grain  and  not  too  hard  in  fubftance.  But  all  mount- 
ed on  Iprings,  as  above  defcribed,  and  their  faces  well  po- 
lifhed  with  black  lead  where  they  come  in  contact  with 
the  ftrincs. 

My  reafons  are.  The  fole-leather  produces  a  full,  fweeC 
and  vigorous  tone  from  the  firft  unifon.  The  fecond  uni- 
lon,  which  is  the  piano  of  the  inftrument  when  the  pedal 
is  prefled,  is  furniflied  with  Morocco  leather,  which  draws 
a  full  but  more  foft  and  fmothered  tone  from  the  ftrincr. 
And  the  oGave  is  ftruck  with  wooden  tongues  for  the  fake 
of  vivacity  or  brilliancy,  which  is  the  genius  of  that  ftop ; 
yet  I  am  n:-t  fure  but  that  the  o£lave  alfo  had' better  be- 
ilruck  with  fole-leather,  like  the  firft  unifon*. 

A  harpfichord  thus  furniihed,   will  produce  a  body  or" 
quantity  of  found,  and  a  purity  of  tone,  that  will  aftoniih 

at 

*  Becaufe,  after  the  (Iroke  has  been  given,  tlie  wooden  tongue  rcpafling  the  flrjng,  yet  in-i 
vibration,  makes  a  jingle,  which  the  leather  tongues  do  not.. 


194    IMPROVEMENT  in  the  HARPSICHORD. 

at  the  firft  hearing,  much  refembling  the  diapafon  ftop  of 
an  organ.  And  it  is  manifeft  that  if  the  touch  be  well 
regulated  at  firft,  it  will  not  afterwards  be  fubjedt  to  alte- 
ration for  a  long  courfe  of  time.  The  touch  is  in  part  re- 
gulated by  the  ftrength  of  the  ferpendne  fpring  and  the 
number  of  its  zig  zag  evolutions ;  and  in  part  by  the  man- 
ner of  rounding  off  the  tip  of  the  tongue ;  for  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  muft  not  be  cut  off  fquare,  (in  which  cafe,  the 
firing  would  leave  the  tongue  too  abruptly  and  caufe  a  dif- 
agreeable  twang,)  but  fhould  be  flanted  off  from  under- 
neath, and  its  extreme  point  rounded  and  well  polifhcd 
by  rubbing  it  very  hard  with  a  piece  of  black  lead.  As 
to  the  ftrength  of  the  fpring,  four  fizes  of  wire,  viz.  from 
n°-  4  to  n°-  S,  will  be  fufficient  for  the  whole  inftrument; 
but  the  touch  is  more  immediately  regulated  by  rounding 
off  the  tips  of  the  tongues  by  the  preffure  and  polifh  of  the 
black  lead,  more  or  lefs,  as  occafion  fliall  require.  When 
the  tongues  are  of  wood,  a  ftroke  or  two  of  a  fine  file  will 
be  neceflary  to  take  off  the  fquare  edge  left  by  the  knife, 
previous  to  the  polifhing  it  with  the  black  lead. 

After  all,  a  harpfichord  juft  furniflied  in  this  way,  will 
not  be  fo  pleafant  to  the  touch  or  to  the  ear  as  it  will  be 
after  a  few  weeks  ufe  ;  when  the  ftrings  will,  by  repeated 
fridlion,  have  rounded  off  and  polifhed  the  tips  of  the 
tongues,  and  have  made  for  themfelves  a  broad  bearing  or 
contaft,  which  cannot  perhaps  be  fo  accurately  produced 
by  any  care  of  the  workman. 

Laftly,  it  is  fcarce  neceffary  to  obfervc  that  the  ferpen- 
tine  fpring  and  the  root  of  the  tongue  muft  be  comprifed 
within  the  thicknefs  of  the  jack ;  otherwife  they  will  be 
apt  to  interfere  with  the  firing  behind,  when  the  ftop  is 
puftied  back. 

F.  HOPKINSON. 


Obfervations 


[     195    ] 


N°  XX. 


Ohfervations  on  a  Comet  lately  difconjered;   commiin'icated 
/y  David  Ritten  house,  Efquire. 

Read  Mar.  d^'\^  tlic  2 1  ft  of  January  laft,  John  Lukens, 
19. 17  A-  \^^  Efquire,  informed  me  that  he  had  diicover- 
ed  a  comet  the  preceding  evening,  and  on  the  evening 
of  "the  fame  day,  afhfted  by  Mr.  Lukens  and  Mr.  Prior,  I 
obferved  the  apparent  place  of  the  comet  to  be  in  the  15th 
degree  of  Pifces,  with  16°  6' fouth  latitude.  By  fubfe- 
quent  obfcrvations  I  found  its  motion  to  be  north  eafterly, 
with  refped  to  the  ecliptic,  and  that  its  neareft  approach  to 
us  had  preceded  our  firlt  obiervation.  It  pafled  the  ecliptic 
on  the  31ft  in  the  25°  of  Pifces,  and  February  the  17th 
it  was  in  Pifces  29'^  with  13°  10'  north  latitude.  This 
was  the  laft  time  I  faw  it,  clouds  and  moonlight  having 
fince  prevented. 

The  light  of  this  comet  was  fo  very  faint  that  it  was 
impoflible  to  obferve  it  with  accuracy,  at  leaft  without  bet- 
ter inftruments  than  I  am  pofleffed  of,  efpecially  as  the 
comet  was  always  involved  in  day  light,  moonlight  or  the 
thick  atmofphere  of  the  horizon.  No  pains  or  attention 
however  were  wanting,  and  from  the  beft  ohfervations  I 
could  make,  I  find  it  paifed  its  perihelion  about  the  20th  of 
January,  its  diftance  from  the  fun  being  about  _\-  of  the 
fun's  diftance  from  us.  The  place  of  its  afcending  node  is 
in  the  25th  deg.  of  Taurus,  and  the  inclination  of  its  orbit 
53''.  Its  motion  is  retrograde,  that  is,  contrary  to  the  or- 
der of  the  figns.  I  have  ftill  hopes  of  feeing  it  in  the 
morning,  though  its  diftance  is  now  fo  very  great  that  it 
can  fcarcely  be  vifible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Extra^' 


I  196  1 


N°  XXI. 

ExtraEi  of  a  Letter  from  the  Rev.  Jeremy  Belknap, 
co7itaining  Obfervations  on  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

Dover,  New-Hampfliire,  March  31ft,  1783. 

Read  May  n  |  ^  ID  you  cvcr,  in  obferving  the  Aurora  Bo- 
£  p  realis,  perceive  a  found?  I  own  I  once 
looked  on  the  idea  as  frivolous  and  chimerical,  having 
heard  it  at  firft  from  perfons  whofe  credulity,  I  fuppofed, 
exceeded  their  judgment ;  but,  upon  hearing  it  repeated- 
ly, and  from  fome  others  whom  I  thought  judicious  and 
curious,  I  began  to  entertain  an  opinion  in  favour  of  it. 
I  was  ftrengthened  in  this  opinion  about  two  years  ago, 
by  liflening  with  attention  to  the  flafhing  of  a  luminous 
arch  which  appeared  in  a  calm  frofty  night,  when  I  thought 
I  heard  a  faint  ruftling  noife  like  the  brufliing  of  filk.  Laft 
Saturday  evening  I  had  full  auricular  demonftration  of  the 
reality  of  this  phenomenon.  About  ten  o'clock  the  hemi- 
fphere  was  all  in  a  glow ;  the  vapours  aicended  from  all 
points,  and  met  in  a  central  one  in  the  zenith  :  All  the 
difference  between  the  fouth  and  north  part  of  the  heavens 
was,  that  the  vapour  did  not  begin  to  afcend  fo  near  the 
horizon  in  the  fouth  as  in  the  north.  There  had  been  a 
fmall  fhower  with  a  few  thunder  claps,  and  a  bright  rain- 
bow in  the  afternoon ;  and  there  was  a  gentle  weftern 
breeze  in  the  evening  which  came  in  flaw-s,  with  intervals 
of  two  or  three  minutes  ;  in  thefe  intervals  1  could  plain- 
ly perceive  the  ruflling  noife,  which  was  eafily  diftinguifh- 
able  from  the  found  of  the  wind,  and  could  not  be  heard 
till  the  flaw  had  fubfided.  The  flafhing  of  the  vapour 
was  extremely  quick  j  whether  accelerated  by  the  wind  I 

cannot 


EXPERIMENTS  on  the  SWEET  SPRINGS.    197 

cannot  fay ;  but  from  that  quarter  where  the  greatefl:  quan- 
tity of  the  vapour  feemed  to  be  in  motion,  the  found  v.  as 
plaineft;  and  this,  during  my  obfervation,  was  the  eaftern. 
The  fcene  lafted  about  half  an  hour,  though  the  whole 
night  was  as  light  as  when  the  moon  is  in  the  quarters." 


N°  XXII. 

A  Letter  from  J.  Madison,  E/q.  to  D.  Rittenhouse, 
E/q.  containing  Experunents  and  Ohfer'vations  upon  ivhat 
are  commonly  called  the  Siveet  Springs, 

THESE  waters  rife  on  the  north  fide  of  a  large  moun- 
tain at  the  foot  of  it,  called  the  Sweet  Spring  Moun- 
tain, in  the  county  of  Botetourt.  The  fouth  fide  is  co- 
hered with  ftones  of  an  ocrous  appearance.  In  many 
places  iron  ore  may  be  found;  but  on  the  north  the  moun- 
tain is  fertile,  covered  with  a  rich  mould,  at  leaft  near  the 
fpring.  The  remarkable  efficacy  of  thefe  waters  in  many 
diforders,  efpecially,  it  is  faid,  in  confumptive  complaints, 
firft  induced  me  to  attempt  their  analyfis.  Such  experi- 
ments as  I  had  time  and  opportunity  to  make,  I  fhall  faith- 
fully relate,  and  leave  it  to  others,  better  qualified  than 
myfelf,  to  judge  of  their  merits. 

Experiment  i.  Having  plunged  a  very  fenfible  mer- 
curial thermometer  in  the  fpring,  it  flood  at  73°-  The 
temperature  of  air  was  about  69. 

2.  A  good  hydrometer  funk  one-twentieth  of  an  inch 
deeper  in  common  mountain  water,  than  in  the  fpring. 

3.  Nut-galls  mixed  with  the  water  in  a  wine  glafs  ftruck 
a  palifli  brown,  which  fhewed  that  there  was  little  or  no 
iron  in  it. 

4.  Violets  mixed  with  the  water  in  a  wine  glafs,  turn- 

C  c  ed 


198    EXPERIMENTS  on  the  SWEET  SPRINGS. 

ed  it  in  a  fliort  time  of  a  redclifh  colour.     This  was  a  proof 
that  the  waters  contained  fome  kind  of  acid. 

5.  Having  made  a  folution  of  filver  in  the  nitrous  acid, 
and  mixed  a  little  of  it  with  the  \Aater,  it  immediately  be- 
came milky,  and  a  white  pulvurent  precipitate  enfucd. 
This  experiment  fhewed  by  the  whitenefs  of  the  precipi- 
tate, that  the  waters  contained  nothing  fulphureous,  and 
by  the  pulvurency  of  the  precipitate  that  the  acid  contain- 
ed in  the  waters  was  vitriolic. 

6.  A  folution  of  lead  in  the  nitrous  acid  being  mixed 
with  the  water,  it  became  fomewhat  milky,  and  a  white 
precipitate  was  obferved.  This  experiment  alfo  fliews  that 
the  waters  contain  an  acid,  moft  probably  the  vitriolic, 
and  alfo  that  they  contain  calcareous  earth.  Soap  is  not 
readily  mifcible  wuth  them. 

7.  A  folution  of  faccharum  faturni  in  the  nitrous  acid 
being  made,  and  lines  marked  upon  paper  with  it,  and 
placed  over  the  water,  the  lines  retained  their  former  co- 
lour. This  experiment  alfo  {hews  that  the  water  contains 
nothing  fulphureous. 

8.  Having  poured  a  little  of  the  fpirit  of  fait  into  the 
water,  after  fome  time  a  coloured  precipitate  was  obferved, 
but  as  the  waters  did  not  flrike  a  green  or  blue  colour,  it 
iliewed  that  there  was  no  copper  in  them. 

9.  A  folution  of  vitriol  of  copper  mixed  with  the  water 
produced  a  thick,  green,  curdly  appearance,  but  did  not 
become  bluer.  This  experiment  fliewed  that  there  was  no 
vol.  alkali  contained  in  them. 

10.  The  vitriolic  acid  mixed  with  the  water  fuddenly 
effervefced,  and  produced  a  heat  which  raifed  the  ther- 
mometer from  75  to  83,  by  applying  the  bulb  to  the 
outiide  of  the  glafs. 

11.  As  the  fpring  is  continually  difcharging  large  bub- 
bles of  air,  which  rifmg  from  the  bottom  break  upon 
the  furface  of  the  water,  I  was  defirous  of  making  fome 
experiments  upon  the  air,  in  order  to  determine  whether 

the 


EXPERIMENTS  on  the  SWEET  SPRINGS,  i 


99 


the  acidity  of  the  water  might  not  he  owing  to  it ;  and 
alfo  to  determine  the  nature  of  the  air,  whether  fixed  or 
not.  Having  therefore  caught  a  quantity  of  the  air  in  a 
decanter,  I  communicated  a  part  of  it  to  an  equal  bulk  of 
pure  mountain  water,  and  after  agitating  them  for  fome 
time,  gave  it  to  feveral  to  tafte  ;  who  agreed  that  it  had 
the  tafte  of  the  fpring  water.  Upon  a  fecond  trial  this  ex- 
periment did  not  fucceed.  I  had  not  an  opportunity  of 
trying  the  nature  of  the  air  by  means  of  chalk-water,  and 
was  prevented  from  profecuting  any  farther  enquiries  into 
the  nature  of  thefe  celebrated  waters  by  a  fudden  alarm, 
to  which  the  frontiers  were  then  continually  expofed. 

Thefe  waters  have  been  falfely  called  Jhi'ect-,  for  their 
tafte  is  evidently  acidulous.  The  experiments  alfo  ihew 
that  they  contain  an  acid.  Their  tafte  refembles  exactly 
that  of  waters  artificially  impregnated  with  fixed  air,  ex- 
tricated from  chalk,  by  means  of  the  vitriolic  acid,  and  I 
conceive  muft  be  nearly  the  fame  with  the  true  Pyrmont 
water.  They  have  little  or  no  fmell,  do  not  form  an  in- 
cruftation,  nor  do  they  leave  a  depofit  upon  ftanding  many 
hours.  Upon  bathing  in  the  morning,  the  flcin  has  a 
foapy  kind  of  feel.     This  was  not  obferved  in  the  evening. 

There  is  near  this  fpring  another,  a  very  ftrong  cha- 
lybeate. 

I  am,  with  great  regard,  yours, 

J.  MADISON. 


N°  XXIII. 

A  Letter  from  the  Rev.  J  K  R  E  m  Y  B  e  l  K  N  a  p,  on  the 
prefernj'mg  of  Parfnips  by  drying, 

Dover,  New-Hampfliire,  March  5,  1784. 
SIR, 

Read  Apr.      A     M  O  N  G  thenumbcr  of  efculent  roots,  the 
,16,  i7»4-  j-^   pmfiiip    has   two   fingular    good    qualities. 

C  c  2  One 


200         On  preserving  PARSNIPS. 

One  is  that  it  will  endure  the  fevereft  froft  and  may  be 
taken  out  of  the  ground  in  the  Ipring,  as  frelh  and  fweet 
as  in  autura;  the  other  is  that  it  may  be  preferved  by 
drying  to  any  defired  length  of  time. 

The  firfl:  of  thefe  advantages  has  been  known  for  many 
years  paft;  the  people  in  the  moft  northerly  parts  of 
New-England  where  winter  reigns  with  great  feverity, 
and  the  ground  is  often  frozen  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three 
feet  tor  tour  months,  leave  their  parfnips  in  the  ground  till 
it  thaws  in  the  fpring,  and  think  them  much  better  preferv- 
ed than  in  cellars. 

The  other  advantage  never  occurred  to  me  till  this 
winter,  when  one  of  my  neighbours  put  into  my  hands  a 
fubilance  which  had  the  appearance  of  a  piece  of  buck's 
horn.  This  was  part  of  a  parfnip  which  had  been  drawn 
out  of  the  ground  laft  April  and  had  lain  neglected  in  a 
dry  clofet  for  ten  months.  It  was  fo  hard  as  to  require 
confiderable  ftrength  to  force  a  knife  through  it  crofs-wife; 
but  being  foaked  in  warm  water,  for  about  an  hour,  became 
lender,  and  was  as  fweet  to  the  tafte  as  if  it  had  been 
frelh  drawn  from  the  grounds 

As  many  ufeful  difcoveries  owe  their  origin  to  accident, 
this  may  fuggeft  a  method  of  preferving  fo  pleafant  and 
wholefome  a  vegetable  for  the  ufe  of  feamen  in  long 
voyages,  to  prevent  the  fcurvey  and  other  diforders  inci-, 
dent  to  a  fea-faring  life,  which  is  often  rendered  tedious 
and  diftrefling  for  want  of  vegetable  food;  fince  I  am  per- 
fuaded  that  parfnips  dried  to  fuch  a  degree,  as  above  relat- 
ed, and  packed  in  tight  catks,  may  be  tranfported  round 
the  globe,  without  any  lofs  of  their  flavour  or  diminution 
of  their  nutritive  quality. 

I  am  fir,  your  humble  fervant, 

JEREMY  BELKNAP. 


Jn 


[      20I       J 


N°  XXIV. 

An  Optical  Problem^  propo/ed  by  Mr.  Hopkinson, 
andfolved  by  Mr.  Rittenhousi;. 

Philadelphia,  March  l6ih,  1785. 
DEAR     SIR, 

Read  Feb.  T  T  A  K  E  thc  liberty  of  requefting  your  attentl- 
'''  ''^   '  X  on  to  the  following  problem  in  optics.     It  is  I 
believe  entirely  new,  and  the  folution  will  afford  amufe- 
ment  to  you  and  inftruftion  to  me. 

Setting  at  my  door  one  evening  lafl  fummer,  I  took  a 
filk  handkerchief  out  of  my  pocket,  and  ftretching  a  por- 
tion of  it  tight  between  my  two  hands,  I  held  it  up  be- 
fore my  face  and  viewed,  through  the  handkerchief,  one 
of  the  flreet  lamps  which  was  about  one  hundred  yards 
diftant;  expecting  to  fee  the  threads  of  the  handkerchief 
much  magnified.  Agreeably  to  my  expedtation  I  obferv- 
ed  the  filk  threads  magnified  to  the  fize  of  very  coarfe 
.wires;  but  was  much  furprifed  to  find  that,  although  I 
moved  the  handkerchief  to  the  right  and  left  before  my 
eyes,  the  dark  bars  did  not  feem  to  move  at  all,  but  re- 
mained permanent  before  the  eye.  If  the  dark  bars  were 
occafioned  by  the  interpofition  of  the  magnified  threads 
between  the  eye  and  the  flame  of  the  lamp,  I  fliould  have 
fuppofed  that  they  would  move  and  fucceed  each  other,  as 
the  threads  were  made  to  move  and  pafs  in  fucceffion  be- 
fore the  eye;  but  the  fail  was  otherwife. 

To  account  for  this  phenomenon  exceeds  my  fkill  in.' 
optics.     You  will  be  fo  good  as  to  try  the  experiment, 
and  if  you  find  the  cafe  truly  ftated,    as  I  doubt  not  you' 
will,  I  fliall  be  much  obliged  by  a  folution  on  philofophi— 
cal  principles.  I  am  fir,  with  great  fincerity. 

Your  moft  cfi^edionatc  friend, 
And  very  humble  fervant, 

F.  HOPKINSON.. 


202  A  PROBLEM  in  OPTICS. 


^ 


The  Anfwer-,  by  Mr.  Ri'ttenhouse. 

DEAR    SIR, 

H  E  experiment  you  mention,  with  a  filk  handker- 


chief and  the  diftant  flame  of  a  lamp,  is  much  more 
curious  than  one  would  at  hrft  imagine.  For  the  objed 
we  fee  is  not  the  web  of  the  handkerchief  magnified,  but 
fomething  very  different,  as  appears  from  the  following 
confiderations.  iff.  A  diflinil  image  of  any  objc£t,  placed 
clofe  to  the  eye,  cannot  be  formed  by  parallel  rays,  or 
fuch  as  iffue  from  a  diftant  luminous  point :  for  all  fuch 
rays,  paffmg  through  the  pupil,  will  be  colleded  at  the 
bottom  of  the  eye,  and  there  form  an  image  of  the  lumi- 
nous point.  The  threads  of  the  handkerchief  would  only 
intercept  part  of  the  rays,  and  render  the  image  lefs  bril- 
liant. 2dly.  If  the  crofs  bars  we  fee  were  images  of  the 
filk  threads,  they  muft  pafs  over  the  retina,  whilft  the 
threads  are  made  to  pafs  over  the  pupil ;  but  this,  as  you 
obferve,  does  not  happen  ;  for  they  continue  ftationary. 
3dly.  If  the  image  on  the  retina  was  a  picture  of  the  ob- 
jed  before  the  eye,  it  muft  be  fine  or  coarfe,  according  to 
the  texture  of  the  handkerchief.  But  it  does  not  chanee 
with  changing  the  filk,  nor  does  it  change  on  removing 
it  farther  from  the  eye.  And  the  number  of  apparent 
threads  remains  the  fame,  whether  lo,  20,  or  30  of  the 
filk  threads  pafs  acrofs  the  pupil  at  the  fame  time.  The 
image  we  fee  muft  therefore  be  formed  in  fome  different 
manner  ;  and  this  can  be  no  other  than  by  means  of  the 
vifleclion  of  light  in  paffmg  near  the  furfaces  of  bodies,  as 
defer ibed  by  Newton. 

It  is  well  known  in  optics  that  different  images  of  the 
different  points  of  objeds  without  the  eye  are  formed  on 
the  retina  by  pencils  of  rays,  which,  before  they  fall  on 
the  eye,  are  inclined  to  each  other  in  fenfible  angles.  And 
the  great  ufe  of  telefcopes  is  to  encreafe  thefe  angles,  re- 
gularly, in  a  certain  ratio ;  fuffering  fuch  rays  as  were 

parallel 


A  PROBLEM  IN  OPTICS.  20^ 

parallel  before  they  enter  the  telefcope  to  proceed  on,  pa- 
rallel, after  paffing  through  it.  The  extended  image  which 
we  fee  in  this  experiment  muft  therefore  be  formed  by 
pencils  of  rays,  which  before  they  entered  the  eye,  had 
very  confiderable  degrees  of  inclination  with  refpeft  to 
each  other.  But  coming  from  a  fmall  diftant  flame  of  a 
lamp,  they  were  nearly  parallel  before  they  palled  through 
the  lilk  handkerchief.  It  was  therefore  the  threads  of  lilk 
which  gave  them  fuch  different  dire£tions. 

Before  the  filk  is  placed  to  the  eye,  parallel  rays  of  light 
will  form  a  fingle  lucid  fpot,  as  at  A,  Plate  III.  Figure  16. 
And  this  fpot  will  ftill  be  formed  afterwards  by  fuch  rays 
as  pafs  through  the  little  mefhes  uninfluenced  by  the 
threads.  But  fuppofe  the  perpendicular  threads  by  their 
aclion  on  the  rays,  to  bend  a  part  of  them  one  degree  to 
the  right  and  left,  another  part  two  degrees ;  there  will  now 
be  four  new  images  formed,  two  on  each  fideof  the  original 
one  at  A.  By  a  funilar  action  of  the  horizontal  threads,  this 
line  of  five  lucid  points  will  be  divided  into  five  other  lines, 
two  above  and  two  below,  making  a  fquare  of  twenty-five 
bright  fpots,  feparated  by  four  perpendicular  dark  lines  and 
four  horizontal  ones ;  and  thefe  lucid  fpots  and  dark  lines 
will  not  change  their  places  on  moving  the  web  of  filk  over 
the  eye  parallel  to  any  of  its  threads.  For  the  point  of  the 
retina  on  which  the  image  fliall  fall  is  determined  by  the 
incidence  of  the  rays,  witli  refpedt  to  the  axis  of  the  eye,  be- 
fore they  enter,  and  not  by  the  part  of  the  pupil  through 
which  they  pafs. 

In  order  to  make  my  experiments  with  more  accuracy, 
I  made  a  fquare  of  parallel  hairs  about  half  an  inch  each 
way.  And  to  have  them  nearly  parallel  and  equidiftant, 
I  got  a  watchmaker  to  cut  a  very  fine  fcrew  on  two  pieces 
of  fmall  brafs  wire.  In  the  threads  of  thcfe  fcrews,  106 
of  which  made  one  inch,  the  hairs  were  laid  50  or  60  in 
number.  Looking  through  thefe  hairs  at  a  fmall  opening 
in  the  window  fhuttcr  of  a  dark  room,  -j\-  of  aii  inch  wide 

and. 


204  A  PROBLEM  in  OPTICS. 

and  three  inches  long,  holding  the  hairs  parallel  to  the 
flit,  and  looking  toward  the  fky,  I  faw  three  parallel  lines, 
almoft  equal  in  brightnels,  and  on  each  fide  four  or  five 
others  much  fainter  and  growing  more  faint,  coloured  and 
indiftind,  the  farther  they  were  from  the  middle  line, 
which  I  knew  to  be  formed  by  fuch  rays  as  pafs  between 
the  hairs  uninfluenced  by  them.  Thinking  my  apparatus 
not  fo  perfed  as  it  might  be,  I  took  out  the  hairs  and  put 
in  others,  fomething  thicker,  of  thefe  190  made  one  inch, 
and  therefore  the  fpaces  between  them  were  about  the  -4^ 
part  of  an  inch.  The  three  middle  lines  of  light  were  now 
not  fo  bright  as  they  had  been  before,  but  the  others  were 
rtronger  and  more  diftindt,  and  I  could  count  fix  on  each 
fide  of  the  middle  line,  feeming  to  be  equally  diftant  from 
each  other,  eftimating  the  diftance  from  the  centre  of  one 
to  the  centre  of  the  next.  The  middle  line  was  ftill  well 
defined  and  colourlefs,  the  next  two  were  likewife  pretty 
well  defined,  but  fomething  broader,  having  their  inner 
edges  tinged  with  blue  and  their  outer  edges  with  red. 
The  others  were  more  indiftindl,  and  confifted  each  of  the 
prifmatic  colours,  in  the  fame  order,  which  by  fpreading 
more  and  more,  feemed  to  touch  each  other  at  the  fifth  or 
fixth  line,  but  thofe  neareft  the  middle  were  feparated  from 
each  other  by  very  dark  lines,  much  broader  than  the 
bright  lines. 

Finding  the  beam  of  light  which  came  through  the  win- 
dow fhutter  divided  into  fo  many  diftindt  pencils,  I  was 
defirous  of  knowing  the  angles  which  they  made  with 
each  other.  For  this  purpofe  I  made  ufe  of  a  fmall  prif- 
matic telefcope  and  micrometer,  with  which  I  was  favour- 
ed by  Dr.  Franklin.  I  faftened  the  frame  of  parallel  hairs 
before  the  objed:  glafs,  fo  as  to  cover  its  aperture  entirely. 
Then  looking  through  the  telefcope,  I  meafured  the  fpace 
between  the  two  firft  fide  lines,  and  found  the  angular 
diftance  between  their  inner  edges  to  be  13',  15";  from 
the  middle  of  one  to  the  middle  of  the  other  15' ,  30",  and 

from 


A  PROBLEM  IN  OPTICS.  205 

-from  tlie  outer  edge  of  one,  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  other 
17',  45".  In  the  firft  cafe  I  had  a  fine  blue  ftreak  in  the 
middle  of  the  objed,  and  in  the  laft  a  red  ftreak.  The 
other  lines  were  too  faint,  when  feen  through  the  telefcope, 
to  meafure  the  angles  they  fubtended  with  accuracy,  biit 
from  fuch  trials  as  I  made  I  am  fatisfied  that  from  the  fe- 
cond  line  on  one  fide  to  the  fecond  on  the  other  fide,  and 
fo  on,  they  w^ere  double,  triple,  quadruple,  &c.  of  the  firll 
angles. 

It  appears  then  that  a  very  confiderable  portion  of  the 
beam  of  light  paifcd  between  the  hairs,  without  being  at 
all  bent  out  of  its  firft  courfe  ;  that  another  fmallcr  porti- 
on was  bent  at  a  medium  about  7',  45"  each  way  ;  the 
red  rays  a  little  more,  and  the  blue  rays  a  little  lefs  ;  an- 
other ftill  fmaller  portion  15',  30"  ;  another  23',  15",  and 
fo  on.  But  that  no  light,  or  next  to  none,  was  bent  in  any 
angle  lefs  than  6',  nor  any  light  of  any  particular  colour, 
in  any  intermediate  angle  between  thofe  which  arife  from 
doubling,  tripling,  &c.  of  the  angle  iu  which  it  is  bent 
in  the  firft  fide  lines. 

I  was  furprized  to  find  that  the  red  rays  are  more  bent 
out  of  their  firft  diredlion,  and  the  blue  rays  lefs;  as  if  the 
hairs  adted  with  more  force  on  the  red  than  on  the  blue 
rays,  contrary  to  what  happens  by  refradlion,  when  light 
pafies  obliquely  through  the  common  furface  of  two  dif- 
ferent mediums.  It  is,  however,  confonant  to  what  Sir 
Ifaac  Newton  obferves  with  refpe(fl  to  the  fringes  that 
border  the  fhadows  of  hairs  and  other  bodies  ;  his  words 
are,  "  And  therefore  the  hair  in  caufing  thefe  frin  ;es, 
"  aited  alike  upon  the  red  light  or  leaft  refrangible  rays 
*'  at  a  greater  diftance,  and  upon  the  violet  or  moft  re- 
"  frangible  rays  at  a  lefs  diftance,  and  by  thofe  adions 
"  difpofed  the  red  light  into  larger  fringes,  and  the  violet 
*'  into  fmaller  frinc-es." 

By  purfuing  thefe  experiments  it  is  probable  that  new 
and  interefting  difcoveries  may  be  made,  refpecting  the 

D  d  properties 


2o6        ENQUIRY  into  the  CAUSE  of 

properties  of  this  wonderful  fubftance,  light,  which  ani- 
mates all  nature  in  the  eyes  of  man,  and  perhaps  above 
all  things  difpofes  him  to  acknowledge  the  Creator's  boun- 
ty. But  want  of  leifure  obliges  me  to  quit  the  fubjed:  for 
the  prefent. 

I  am,  dear  fir,  your  affedionate  friend, 
And  very  humble  fervant, 

DAVID  RITTENHOUSE. 


N°  XXV. 

An  Ejiquirj  into  the  Caiife  of  the  Increafe  of  Bilious  and 
Intermitting  Fevers  in  Pennfyl'vania^   nvith  Hints  for 
frequenting  them.     By  Benjamin  Rush,  M.  D.  Pro- 
feffor  of  Chemiflry  in  the  Univerfity  of  Pennfylvania. 


Read  December  -H-T  ^35  bceu  remarked,  that  Pennfylvania  for 
fonie  years  part  has  become  more  fickly  than 


16,  1785. 


.         I         . 

formerly.  Fevers  which  a  few  years  ago  appeared  chiefly 
on  the  banks  of  creeks  and  rivers,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  mill-ponds,  now  appear  in  parts  remote  from 
them  all,  and  in  the  higheft  fituations.  This  change  with 
rciped  to  the  healthinefs  of  our  country,  may  be  traced 
to  the  three  following  caufes. 

1.  The  eftablifliment  and  increafe  of  mill-ponds.  There 
are  whole  counties  in  Pennfylvania  in  which  intermittents 
were  unknown,  until  the  waters  in  them  were  dammed, 
for  the  purpofe  of  eredling  mill-ponds. 

2.  The  cutting  down  of  wood,  under  certain  circum- 
ftances,  tends  to  render  a  country  fickly.  It  has  been  re- 
marked that  Intermittents  on  the  fliores  of  the  Sufquehan- 
nah  have  kept  an  exaft  pace  with  the  paflages  which  have 
been  opened  for  the  propagation  of  marfh  effluvia,  by 


cutting 


BILIOUS  AND  INTERMITTING  FEVERS.     207 

cutting  down  the  wood  which  formerly  grew  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood. I  remcmljer  the  time,  when  inlermittents 
were  known  only  within  half  a  mile,  in  fome  places,  of 
that  river.  They  are  now  to  be  met  with  ten  miles  from 
it  in  the  fame  parts  of  the  ftate. 

I  beg  a  difti notion  to  be  made  here  between  clearing  and 
culli-vatiiig  a  country.  While  clearing  a  country  makes 
it  fickly  in  the  manner  that  has  been  mentioned,  cultivat- 
ing a  country,  that  is,  draining  fwamps,  dellroying  weeds, 
burning  brufh,  and  exhaling  the  unwhoHbme  or  fuperflu- 
ous  moifturc  of  the  earth,  by  means  of  frequent  crops  of 
grain,  graifes,  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds,  render  it  heal- 
thy. I  could  mention,  in  fupport  of  thefe  fa£ts,  feveral 
countries  in  the  United  States,  which  have  palled  through 
each  of  the  ftages  that  have  been  defcribed.  The  hrft  fet- 
tlers  received  thefe  countries  from  the  hands  of  nature  pure 
and  healthy*.  Fevers  foon  followed  their  improvements, 
nor  were  they  finally  banilhed,  until  the  higher  degrees  of 
cultivation  that  have  been  named  took  place.  I  confine 
myfelf  to  thofe  countries  only  where  the  ialutary  effects  of 
cultivation  were  not  rendered  abortive  by  the  neighbour- 
hood ot  mill-ponds. 

A  3d  caufe  of  the  late  increafe  of  bilious  and  intermit- 
ting fevers,  muft  be  fought  for  in  the  difl"erent  and  une- 
qual quantities  of  rain  which  have  fallen  within  thci'e  laft 
feven  years.  While  our  creeks  and  rivers,  from  the  uni- 
formity of  our  feafons,  were  confined  to  fteady  bounds, 
there  was  little  or  no  exhalation  of  febrile  miafmata  frona 
their  fhores.  But  the  dry  fummers  of  1780,  1781,  and 
1782,  by  reducing  our  creeks  and  rivers  far  below  their 
ancient  marks  ;  while  the  wet  fprings  of  1784  and  1785, 
by  fwelling  them  both  beyond  their  natural  heights,  have, 
when  they  have  fallen,  as  in  the  former  cafe,  left  a  large 

D  d  2  and 

*  A  phyfician  who  travelled  throuf^h  part  of  Bedford  count)-,  in  Pcnnfylvania,  in  the  year 
1782,  informed  me  that  he  was  witnefs  of  fomc  country  people  liaving  travelled  twenty  miles, 
to  fee  wlutliei-  it  was  poflible  for  a  German  girl  who  laboured  under  an  intermittent,  to  be'' 
UOT  and  cuLU  at  the  fame  time. 


2o8         ENQUIRY  into  the  CAUSE  of 

and  extcnfive  furface  of  niolfl  ground  expofed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  fun,  and  of  courfe  to  the  generation  and  exha- 
lation of  febrile  miafmata.  The  hiftory  of  epidemics  irr 
foreign  countries,  favours  this  opinion  of  the  caule  of  their 
increafe  in  Pennfylvania.  The  inhabitants  of  Egypt  are 
always  healthy  during  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile.  Their 
fevers  appear  only  after  the  recefs  of  the  river.  It  is  re- 
markable that  a  wet  feafon  is  often  healthy  in  low,  while 
it  is  fickly  in  hilly  countries.  The  real'on  is  obvious.  In 
the  former  the  rains  entirely  cover  all  the  moift  grounds, 
while  in  the  latter,  they  fall  only  in  a  fufficient  quantity 
to  produce  thofe  degrees  of  moifture  which  favour  febrile 
exhalations.  The  rains  which  fall  in  the  fummer  are  ren- 
dered harmlefs  only  by  covering  the  xvhole  furface  of 
marfhy  ground.  The  rains  which  fall  in  our  ftate  after 
the  middle  of  September,  are  fo  far  from  producing  fevers, 
that  they  generally  prevent  them.  The  extraordinary 
healthlnefs  of  the  laft  autumn,  1  believe  was  occafioned' 
by  nothing  but  the  extraordinary  quantity  of  rain  that  fell 
during  the  autumnal  months.  The  rain  probably  afts  at 
this  feafon  by  diluting,  and  thus  deftroying,  the  febrile 
miafmata  that  were  produced  by  the  heat  and  moifture  of 
the  preceding  fummer.  In  fupport  of  the  truth  of  this 
third  caufe  of  the  increafe  of  fevers  in  Pennfylvania,  I  have' 
only  to  add  a  fa£t  lately  communicated  to  me  by  Dr. 
Franklin.  He  informed  me  that  in  his  journey  from  Pafly 
to  Havre  de  Grace,  laft  fummer,  he  found  the  country 
through  which  he  travelled,  unufually  fickly  with  fevers. 
Thefe  fevers  it  was  generally  fuppofed,  were  produced  by 
the  extraordinary  dry  weather,  of  which  the  public  papers- 
have  given  us  fuch  melancholy  and  frequent  accounts. 

I  come  now  to  fuggeft  a  few  hints  for  obviating  and 
preventing  fevers,  and  for  rendering  our  country  again 
healthy.  For  this  purpofe  I  beg  leave  to  recommend  in 
the  firft  place,  the  planting  of  trees  around  all  our  mill- 
ponds,   (befides  cleaning  them  occafionally)  in  order  to 

prevent 


BILIOUS  AND  INTERMITTING  FEVERS.     209- 

prevent  the  difeafes  that  have  juftly  been  afcrlbed  to  them. 
Let  the  trees  be  planted  in  the  greateft  number,  and  clofeft' 
together,  to  leeward  of  the  ordhiary  current  of  the  fum- 
mer  and  autumnal  winds.  I  have  known  feveral  inftances 
of  families  being  preferved  from  fevers  by  an  accidental 
copfe  of  w^ood  ftanding  between  a  mill-pond  and  a  dwell- 
ing houfe,  and  that  in  cafes  too  where  the  houfe  derived 
no  advantage  from  an  high  fituation.  The  trees  aronnd 
or  near  a  mill-pond,  a£t  perhaps  in  a  fmall  degree  mecha- 
nicnlly.  By  fheltering  the  pond  from  the  adion  of  the 
fun,  they  leiTen  exhalation,  as  well  as  obllruft  the  palfage 
of  the  vapors  that  are  railed  to  the  adjacent  parts.  But 
they  aft  likewife  chemically.  It  has  been  demonflrated 
that  trees  abforb  unhealthy  air,  and  difcharge  it  in  a  high- 
ly purified  ftate  in  the  form  of  what  is  now  called  "  de- 
"  flogifticated"  air.  The  vpillow  tree,  according  to  Mr. 
Ingenhaufz,  has  been  found  to  purify  air  the  moft  rapidly 
of  any  tree  that  he  fubjedted  to  his  experiments.  The  ra- 
pidity of  its  growth,  its  early  verdure,  and  the  late  fall  of 
its  leaf,  all  feem  to  mark  it  likewife  as  a  tree  highly  pro- 
per for  this  purpofe. 

A  fecond  method  of  preventing  fevers,  is  to  let  the  cul- 
tivation always  keep  pace  with  the  clearing  of  our  lands. 
Nature  has  in  this  inftance  conne(£led  our  duty,  intereft 
and  health  together.  Let  every  fpot  covered  with  moifture 
from  which  the  wood  has  been  cut,  be  carefully  drained, 
and  afterwards  ploughed  and  fowed  with  grafs  feed;  let 
weeds  of  all  kinds  be  deftroyed,  and  let  the  waters  be  fo 
directed  as  to  prevent  their  ftagnating  in  any  part  of  their 
courfe. 

Thefe  are  the  two  principal  means  of  extirpating  inter- 
mitting and  bilious  fevers  from  our  country,  but  as  thefe 
means  are  flow  in  their  operation,  I  fhall  fubjoin  a  few" 
diredions  for  preventing  fevers  till  the  above  remedies. 
can  take  effed. 

i;..  Whetherr 


2IO         ENQJJIRY  INTO  THE  CAUSE  of 

1.  Whether  the  matter  which  produces  fevers  be  of  an 
organic,  or  inorganic  nature,  I  do  not  pretend  to  deter- 
mine, but  it  is  certain,  that  fire  or  the  fmoke  or  beaty 
which  ilTue  from  it,  deftroy  the  effects  of  marlb  miafmata 
vipon  the  human  body;  hence  we  find  cities  more  heahhy 
than  country  places,  and  the  centre  of  cities  more  heal- 
thy than  their  fuburbs  in  the  fickly  months.  To  derive 
the  utmoft  pofTible  benefit  from  this  method  of  prevent- 
ing ficknefs,  I  would  advife  large  fires  to  be  made  every 
evening  of  brufli  between  the  Ipots  from  whence  the  ex- 
halations are  derived,  and  the  dwelling  houle,  and  as 
near  to  the  latter  as  is  fafe,  and  not  difagreeable.  This 
practice  fhould  be  continued  till  the  appearance  of  two 
or  three  frofts,  for  frofts  as  well  as  heavy  rains  in  the  au- 
tumnal months  never  fail  to  put  a  flop  to  the  progrefs  of 
intermittents. 

During  the  fickly  feafon,  fires  fliould  be  likewife  kept 
in  every  room  in  the  dwelling  houfe,  even  in  thofe  cafes 
where  the  heat  of  the  weather  makes  it  necefl'ary  to  keep 
the  doors  and  windows  open. 

2.  Let  me  advife  my  countrymen  in  fickly  fituations, 
to  prefer  woolen  and  cotton  to  linen  clothes  in  the  fum- 
nier  and  autumnal  months.  The  mofi:  fickly  parts  of  the 
ifland  of  jamacia  have  been  rendered  more  healthy,  fince 
the  inhabitants  have  adopted  the  ufe  of  woolen  and  cotton 
garments  inftead  of  linen. 

During  the  late  war,  I  knew  many  officers  both  in  the 
Britifh  and  American  armies  who  efcaped  fevers  in  the 
mofi:  fickly  places,  by  wearing  woolen  fliirts,  or  waift- 
coats  conftantly  next  to  their  fkins.  I  have  heard  the  pre- 
fent  diminution  of  the  human  body  in  ftrength  and  fize, 
compared  with  its  ancient  vigor  and  form,  afcribed  in 
part  to  the  introdu£tion  of  linen  garments.  I  am  not 
dlfpofed  to  controvert  this  opinion,  but  I  am  fure  of  the 
efficacy  of  woolen  clothes  in  wet  and  cold  climates  in  pre- 
venting fevers  of  all  kinds.     The   parliament  of  Great 

Britain 


BILIOUS  AND  INTERMITTING  FEVERS.     211 

Britain  compels  every  body  that  dies  within  the  ifland  to 
be  buried  in  a  woolen  fliirt  or  winding  fheet.  The  law 
would  be  much  wifer  if  it  compelled  every  body  to  wear 
w^oolen  garments  next  to  their  fkins  during  life,  and  linen 
after  death. 

3.  The  diet  in  the  fickly  months  Ihould  be  generous. 
Wine  and  beer  fhould  be  the  drinks  of  this  feafon  inftead 
of  fpirits  and  water.  I  do  not  think  that  fruit  and  vege- 
tables of  any  kind  produce  fevers,  but  as  the  feafon  of  the 
year  produces  languor  and  weaknefs,  a  larger  quantity  of 
animal  food  than  ufual  is  befl:  calculated  to  oppofe  them. 
Salted  meat  for  this  reafon  is  preferable  to  frefh  meat. 
Food  of  all  kinds  eaten  daring  the  fickly  months  fhould 
be  well  fcafoned. 

4.  The  evening  air  fliould  be  avoided  as  much  as  pof- 
fible.  There  are  at  prcfent  few  places  in  Pennfylvania 
where  it  is  fafe  to  fleep,  or  even  to  fet,  after  the  going  dovi^n 
of  the  fun,  in  the  fickly  months,  with  the  windows  open.  The 
morning  air  before  the  fun  rifes,  fliould  not  be  breathed, 
until  the  body  has  been  fortified  with  a  little  folid  aliment, 
or  a  dnmght  of  bitters.  Thefe  bitters  fliould  be  made  of 
centaury,  wormwood,  camomile,  or  the  bark  of  the  willow 
or  dogwood  trees,  infufed  in  tvater.  Bitters  m.ade  with 
fpirits,  or  even  wine,  cannot  be  taken  in  a  fuflicient  quan- 
tity to  do  fervice,  without  producing  intoxication,  or  the 
deadly  habit  of  loving  and  drinking  fpirituous  liquors. 

5.  Too  much  cannot  be  laid  in  favour  of  cleanlinefs, 
as  a  means  of  preventing  fevers.  The  body  Ihould  be 
bathed  or  waflied  frequently.  It  has  been  proved  that  in 
the  highlands  of  Jamaica  adding  fait  to  water,  renders  it 
more  powerful  in  preventing  difeafes  when  applied  to  the 
body.  Equal  pains  fliould  be  taken  to  promote  cleanli- 
nefs in  every  fpecies  of  apparel.  OfFal  matters,  efpecially 
thofe  which  are  of  a  vegetable  nature,  iliould  be  removed 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  a  dwelling  houfe.  The  dung 
of  domeflic  animals  during  its  progrefs  tov;ards  manure 


212        ENQUIRY  INTO  THE  CAUSE  of 

may  be  excepted  from  this  diredlion.  Nature,  •which 
made  man  and  thefe  animals,  equally  neceffary  to  each 
other's  fubfiftence,  has  kindly  prevented  any  inconveni- 
ence from  their  living  together.  On  the  contrary,  to  re- 
pay the  hufbandman  for  affording  a  fhelter  to  thefe  ufe- 
ful  and  helplefs  animals,  nature  has  done  more.  She  has 
endowed  their  dung  with  a  power  of  deftroying  the  effedls 
of  marlli  exhalations,  and  of  preventing  fevers.  The 
miferable  cottagers  in  Europe  who  live  under  the  fame 
roof,  and  in  fome  inftances  in  the  fame  room  with  their 
cattle,  are  always  healthy.  In  Philadelphia,  fevers  are  lefs 
known  in  the  neighbourhood  of  livery  ftables,  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  city.  I  could  mention  a  family  that 
has  lived  near  thirty  years  near  a  livery  liable  in  a  fickly 
part  of  the  city,  that  has  never  known  a  fever  but  from 
the  meafles  or  fmall-pox. 


N°  XXVI. 

Jn  Account  of  the  late  Dr.  Hugh  Martin'j  Cancer 
Poivder,  ivith  brief  Ohfervations  on  Cancers.  By  Ben- 
jamin Rush,  M.  D.  ^'c.  (^'c. 

ReadFebniary  A  Fgw  years  ago  a  Certain  Dr.  Hugh  Mar- 
_^j^  tin,  a  furgeon  of  one  of  the  Pennfylvania 
regiments  ftationed  at  fort  Pitt,  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  late  war,  came  to  this  city,  and  advertifed  to  cure  can- 
cers with  a  medicine  which  he  faid  he  had  difcovered  in 
the  woods,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  garrifon.  As 
Dr.  Martin  had  once  been  a  pupil  of  mine,  I  took  the  li- 
berty of  waiting  upon  him,  and  afked  him  fome  queftions 
refpe£ling  his  difcovery.  His  anfvvers  were  calculated  to 
make  me  believe,  that  his  medicine  was  of  a  vegetable 
nature,  and  that  it  was  originally  an  Indian  remedy.    He 

fliewed 


On  Dr.  MARTIN's  CANCER  POWDER.     213 

fhewed  me  fome  of  the  medicine,  which  appeared  to  be 
the  powder  of  a  well  dried  root  of  fome  kind.  Anxious 
to  fee  the  fuccefs  of  this  medicine  in  cancerous  fores,  I 
prevailed  upon  the  dottor  to  admit  me  to  fee  him  apply  it 
in  two  or  three  cafes.  I  obferved  in  fome  inftances,  he 
applied  a  powder  to  the  parts  affedted,  and  in  others  only 
touched  them  with  a  feather  dipped  in  a  liquid  which  had 
a  white  fediment,  and  which  he  made  me  believe  was  the 
vegetable  root  diffufed  in  water.  It  gave  me  great  plea- 
fure  to  witnefs  the  efficacy  of  the  dotftor's  applications. 
In  feveral  cancerous  ulcer;'.,  the  cures  he  performed  were 
complete.  Where  the  cancers  were  much  conneded  with 
the  lymphatic  fyftem,  or  accompanied  with  a  fcrophulous 
habit  of  body,  his  medicine  always  failed,  and  in  fome 
inftances  did  evident  mifchief. 

Anxious  to  difcover  a  medicine  that  promifed  relief  in 
even  a  few  cafes  of  cancers,  and  fuppofmg  that  all  the 
cauftic  vegetables  were  nearly  alike,  I  applied  the  Phyto- 
lacca or  poke  root,  the  ftramonium,  the  arum,  and  one 
or  two  others,  to  foul  ulcers,  in  hopes  of  feeing  the  fame 
effedls  from  them  which  I  had  feen  from  Dr.  Martin's 
powder,  but  in  thefe  I  was  difappointed.  They  gave  fome 
pain,  but  performed  no  cures.  At  length  I  was  furnifh- 
ed  by  a  gentleman  from  fort  Pitt  with  a  powder  which  I 
had  no  doubt,  from  a  variety  of  circumftances,  was  of  the 
fame  kind  as  that  ufed  by  Dr.  Martin.  I  applied  it  to  a 
fungous  ulcer,  but  without  producing  the  degrees  of  pain, 
inflammation,  or  difcharge,  which  I  had  been  accuftomed 
to  fee  from  the  application  of  Dr.  Martin's  powder.  After 
this,  I  fliould  have  fufpedted  that  the  powder  was  not  a 
fimple  root,  had  not  the  doctor  continued  upon  all  occafi- 
ons  to  affure  me  that  it  was  wholly  a  vegetable  preparation. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1784  the  dodtor  died,  and 
it  was  generally  believed  that  his  medicine  had  died  with 
him.  A  few  weeks  after  his  death,  I  procured  from  Mr. 
Thomas  Lieper,  one  of  his  adminiftrators,  a  few  ounces  of 

E  e  the 


214    On  Dr.  MARTIN's  CANCER  POWDER. 

the  do£lor's  powder,  partly  with  a  view  of  applying  it  to 
a  cancerous  fore  which  then  offered,  and  partly  with  a 
view  of  examining  it  more  minutely  than  I  had  been  able 
to  do  during  the  doctor's  life.  Upon  throwing  the  pow- 
der, which  was  of  a  brown  colour,  upon  a  piece  of  white 
paper,  I  perceived  diftindlly  a  number  of  white  particles 
Scattered  through  it.  1  fufpeded  at  firft  that  they  were 
corrofive  fublimate,  but  the  ufual  tefts  of  that  metallic  fait 
foon  convinced  me  that  I  was  miftaken.  Recolledting 
that  arfenic  was  the  bafis  of  moft  of  the  celebrated  cancer 
powders  that  have  been  ufed  in  the  world,  I  had  recourfe 
to  the  tefts  for  detecting  it.  Upon  fprinkling  a  fmall 
quantity  of  the  powder  upon  fome  coals  of  fire,  it  emitted 
the  garlic  fmell  fo  perceptibly  as  to  be  known  by  feveral 
perfons  whom  I  called  into  the  room  where  I  made  the 
experiment,  and  who  knew  nothing  of  the  objed  of  my 
enquiries.  After  this  with  fome  difficulty  I  picked  out 
about  three  or  four  grains  of  the  white  powder,  and  bound 
them  between  two  pieces  of  copper,  which  I  threw  into  the 
fire.  After  the  copper  pieces  became  red  hot,  I  took  them 
out  of  the  fire,  and  when  they  had  cooled,  difcovered  an  evi- 
dent whitenefs  imparted  to  both  of  them.  One  of  the 
pieces  afterwards  looked  like  dull  filver.  Thefe  two  tefts 
have  generally  been  thought  fufficient  to  diftinguifti  the 
prefence  of  arfenic  in  any  bodies,  but  I  made  ufe  of  a  third, 
which  has  lately  been  communicated  to  the  world  by  Mr. 
Bergman,  and  which  is  fuppofed  to  be  in  all  cafes  infal- 
lible. 

I  infufed  a  fmall  quantity  of  the  powder  in  a  folution  of 
a  vegetable  alkali  in  water  for  a  fe^v  hours,  and  then  poured 
it  upon  a  folution  of  blue  vitriol  in  water.  The  colour  of 
the  vitriol  was  immediately  changed  to  a  beautiful  green, 
and  afterwards  precipitated. 

I  iTiall  clofe  this  paper  with  a  few  remarks  upon  this 
powder,  and  upon  the  cure  of  cancers  and  foul  ulcers  of 
all  kinds. 

The 


On  Dr.  MARTIN's  CANCER  POWDER.     215 

I.  The  ufc  of  cauftics  in  cancers  and  foul  ulcers  Is  very 
ancient,  and  univerfal.  But  I  believe  arjhiic  to  be  the 
mofl;  efficacious  of  any  that  has  ever  been  ufed.  It  is  the 
bafis  of  Plunkett's  and  probably  of  Guy's  well  known 
cancer  powders.  The  great  art  of  applying  it  fuccefs- 
fully,  is  to  dilute  and  mix  it  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  mi- 
tigate the  violence  of  its  aftion.  Dr.  Martin's  compofiti- 
on  was  happily  calculated  for  this  purpofe.  It  gave  lefs 
pain  than  the  common  or  lunar  cauftic.  It  excited  a  mode- 
rate inflammation,  which  feparated  the  morbid  from  the 
found  parts,  and  promoted  a  plentiful  afflux  of  humours  to 
the  fore  during  its  application.  Itfeldom  produced  an  efcar; 
hence  it  infmuated  itfelf  into  the  deepeft  receffes  of  the 
cancers,  and  frequently  feparated  thefe  fibres  in  an  un- 
broken ftate  which  are  generally  called  the  roots  of  the 
cancer.  Upon  this  account,  I  think,  in  an  ulcerated  can- 
cer it  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  knife.  It  has  no  adion  up- 
on the  found  (kin.  This  Dr.  Hall  proved  by  confining  a 
fmall  quantity  of  it  upon  his  arm  for  many  hours.  In 
thofe  cafes  where  Dr.  Martin  ufed  it  to  extrad:  cance- 
rous or  fchirrous  tumors  that  were  not  ulcerated,  I  have 
reafon  to  believe  that  he  always  broke  the  fkin  with  Spa- 
nifh  flies. 

2.  The  arfenic  ufed  by  the  dodlor  was  the  pure  white 
arfenic.  I  fhould  fuppofe  from  the  examination  I  made 
of  the  powder  with  the  eye,  that  the  proportion  of  arfenic 
to  the  vegetable  powder,  could  not  be  more  than  -^^  part 
of  the  whole  compound.  I  have  reafon  to  think  that  the 
dodtor  employed  different  vegetable  fubfl:ances  at  diff'erent 
times.  The  vegetable  matter  with  which  the  arfenic  was 
combined  in  the  powder  which  1  ufed  in  my  expe- 
riments, was  probably  nothing  more  than  the  powder 
of  the  root  and  berries  of  the  folanum  lethale,  or  deadly 
nightfhade.  As  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  only  de- 
fign  of  the  vegetable  addition  was  to  blunt  the  acti- 
vity of  the  arfenic,  I  fliould  fuppofe  that  the  fame  propor- 

E  e  a  tion 


2i6     On  Dr.  MARTIN 's  CANCER  POWDER. 

tlon  of  common  wheat  flour  as  the  dodtor  ufed  of  his 
cauflic  vegetables,  would  anfwer  nearly  the  fame  purpofe. 
In  thofe  cafes  where  the  dodlor  applied  a  feather  dipped 
in  a  liquid  to  the  fore  of  his  patient,  I  have  no  doubt  but 
his  phial  contained  nothing  but  a  weak  folution  of  arfenic 
in  water.  This  is  no  new  method  of  applying  arfenic  to 
foul  ulcers.  Dr.  Way  of  Wilmington,  has  fpoken  in  the 
higheft  terms  to  me  of  a  wafh  for  foulnefl'es  on  the  fkin,  as 
well  as  old  ulcers,  prepared  by  boiling  an  ounce  of  white 
arfenic  in  two  quarts  of  water  to  three  pints,  and  apply- 
ing it  once  or  twice  a  day. 

3.  I  mentioned  formerly  that  Dr.  Martin  was  often 
unfuccefsful  in  the  application  of  his  powder.  This  was 
occafioned  by  his  ufing  it  indifcriminately  in  all  cafes.  In 
fchirrous  and  cancerous  tumours,  the  knife  {hould  always 
be  preferred  to  the  cauftic.  In  cancerous  ulcers  attended 
with  a  fcrophulous  or  a  bad  habit  of  body,  fuch  particularly 
as  have  their  feat  in  the  neck,  in  the  breafts  of  females, 
and  in  the  axillary  glands,  it  can  only  protradl  the  pati- 
ent's mifery.  Moft  of  the  cancerous  fores  cured  by  Dr. 
Martin  were  feated  on  the  nofe,  or  cheeks,  or  upon  the  fur- 
face  or  extremities  of  the  body.  It  remains  yet  to  difcover 
a  ciu"e  for  cancers  that  taint  the  fluids,  or  infedt  the  whole 
lymphatic  fyftem.  This  cure  I  apprehend  muft  be  fought 
for  in  diet,  or  in  the  long  ufe  of  fome  internal  medicine. 

To  pronounce  a  difeafe  incurable,  is  often  to  render  it 
fo.  The  intermitting  fever,  if  left  to  itfelf,  would  proba- 
bly prove  frequently,  and  perhaps  more  fpeedily  fatal  than 
cancers.  And  as  cancerous  tumours  and  fores  are  often 
negledted,  or  treated  improperly  by  injudicious  people, 
from  an  apprehenfion  that  they  are  incurable,  (to  which 
the  frequent  advice  of  phyficians  "  to  let  them  alone,"  has 
no- doubt  contributed)  perhaps  the  introduction  of  arfenic 
into  regular  praftice  as  a  remedy  for  cancers,  may  invite 
to  a  more  early  applicationto  phyficians,  and  thereby  pre- 
vent 


On  Dr.  MARTIN's  CANCER  POWDER.     217 

vent  the  deplorable  cafes  that  have  been  mentioned,  which 
are  often  rendered  fo  by  delay  or  iinflcilful  management. 

4.  It  is  not  in  cancerous  fores  only  that  Dr.  Martin's 
powder  has  been  found  to  do  fervice.  In  fores  of  all  kinds, 
and  from  a  variety  of  caufes,  where  they  have  been  attend- 
ed with  fungous  flefh  or  callous  edges,  i  have  ufed  the 
dodlor's  powder  with  advantage. 

I  flatter  myfelf  that  I  fhall  be  excufed  in  giving  this 
detail  of  a  quack  medicine,  when  the  fociety  retiedl  that  it 
was  from  the  inventions  and  temerity  of  quacks,  that  phy- 
ficians  have  derived  fome  of  their  mofl  active  and  ufeful 
medicines. 


N°  XXVII. 

llluftrlflimx  ac  celeberrlmre  Societati  Scientiarum  quoe 
eft  Philadelphia:. 

S.  P.  D. 

Christianus  Mayer  Ser""  Eledoris  Palatini 
Aftronomus. 

CRIBENDI  occafionem  a  CI.  D.  Ferdinando  Far- 
mer oblatam  eo  minus  negligendam  putavi  quod  hac 
ratione  aliquantum  refpondeam  honori,  quo  me  illuftrifTima 
focietas  afFecit,  cum  me  in  album  fuorum  fociorum  ad 
fcripfit.  Ex  libro  Philadelphia:  imprelfo  &  ad  me  tribus 
circiter  abhinc  annis  tranfmilTo  intellexi  non  line  magno 
animi  mei  fenfu,  etiam  Philadelphia;  excoli  aftronomiam. 
Libro  illo  fcriptifque  meis  aftronomicis  infelici  incendio 
abhinc  biennio  conlumtis,  de  novis  mels  quibufdam  in  coelo 
inventis  ad  focietatem  illuftriflimam  allquid  fcribendum 
efle,  duxi.     Speculam  novam  ad  omnes  ufus  accommoda- 

tam^ 


^i8  MAYERI  OBSERVATIONES  ASTRONOMIC^. 

tarn  Manhemii  inhabito ;  nee  defunt  pretiofiffima  Londi- 
nenfia  inftrumenta,  in  quibus  prsecipue  eminet  quadrans 
muralis  aeneus  8  pedum  in  rhadio  a  eel.  artlfici  Bird  anno 
1 775  confeftus  &  plane  infigni  tubo  achromatico  inftrue- 
tus,  folidiffimeque  muro  affixus  ad  plagam  coeli  meridio- 
nalem,  quo  inftrumento,  quoties  coelum  favet,  utor  quo- 
tidie.  Adverti  autem  ftatim  abhine  biennio  in  ftellis  fixis 
plane  multis  a  primo  gradu  magnitudnis  ad  fextum  ufque, 
diftingui  alias  ftellulas  parvulas  comites,  quarum  alice  ob 
lucem  tranquillam  &  obtufam  planetarumfpeciemreferunt, 
alix  telefeopicam  parvitatem  non  excedunt.  Quod  maxime 
mirabar,  illud  eft,  quod  has  ftellulas  comites,  pauciflimis 
duntaxat  exeeptis,  nullo  noto  eatalogo  contineri  viderem, 
cum  tamen  earum  ufum  ad  determinandum  motum  pro- 
prium  fixarum  efle  plane  infignem  evidenter  colligerem. 
Cum  enim  ibi,  ubi  paucorum  plerumqe  fecundorum  repe- 
ritur  diff^erentiaafcenfionis  redtjE&declinationis  inter  fixam 
lucidiorem,  ejufque  comitem,  lapfus  temporis  baud  aliam 
variationem  ftellge  fixse,  quam  ejus  eomiti  inducere  poftit, 
unde  demum  eunque  ifta  mutatio  oriatur,  five  a  prxceffi- 
one  cequinoftiorum,  five  a  variatione  obliquitatis  eclipticse, 
five  a  deviatione  inftrumenti,  feu  ab  aberratione  luminis 
aut  nutationis,  five  ab  alia  quaeunque  caufa,  quae  pendeat 
a  mutabili  ftatu  atmofpherae  aut  locorum  latitudine,  con- 
tingit  fane,  ut  omnis  mutatio  vifa  inter  fixam,  ejufque 
comitem,  motusproprii  argumentum  praebeat  certiftimum, 
five  is  fixam  five  ejus  comitem  afficiat.  Noveram  Halleum 
eel.  Angliae  aftronomum  primum  fuifle,  qui  anno  1 719  ex 
inftituta  comparatione  obfervationum  Flamfteadii  cum  illis 
Ptolomcci  in  paucis  quibufdam  fixis,  Syrio,  Ar£luro  & 
Aldebaran  deprehendit  has  ftellas  moveri  motu  fingulari 
proprio.  Sed  fimul  noveram  in  Hiftoria  Coelefti  Brittan- 
nica  Flamfteadii  jam  anno  1690  ufurpatam  fuifle  a  Flam- 
fteadio  vocem  comitis  fixarum,  cum  vir  fummus  nee  dum 
de  motu  proprio  fixarum  eogitaflet.  Aftronomi  reliqui 
Halleo  pofteriores  quotquot  in  motum  proprium  fixarum 

inquifiverunt, 


MAYERI  OBSERVATTONES  ASTRONOMICi^.  219. 

inquifiverunt,  Hallei  methodum  fecuti  funt,  comparando 
obi'ervatlones  fuas  cum  obfervationlbus  antiquorum  :  me- 
thodus  hscc  prolixos  requirit  calculorum  labores,  multlfque 
dubitationibus  manet  obnoxia  ob  incertitudintm,  lubricam- 
que  conditionem  inftrumentorum,  &  obfervationum  anti- 
quarum  ;  non  item  methodus  mea  nova,  qua  ex  variatione 
inter  comitem  &  fixam  illuftriorera  obfervata,  ftatim  con- 
fequitur  dari  motum  proprium,  vel  utriufque  vel  allerutrius 
fideris.  Itaque  ducentos  fere  diverfarum  fixarum  comites 
a  biennio  obfervavi,  eundem  fere  paralellum  ftatim  ante 
vel  poft  fixam  dccurrentes,  &  obfervationes  hujufmodi 
plures  cum.  eel.  Angliae  aftronomo  Nevil  Maflcelyne  com- 
municavi,  qui  eas  fibi  gratiffimas  accidifle  refpondet.  Ex 
multis,  obfervationes  paucas  ad  illuftriflimam  focietatem 
fpeciminis  loco  tranfmitto,  quarum  refpondentes  in  Hifto- 
ria  Ccelefti  Britannica  Flamfteadii  invenio,  unde  fimul 
patet,  quam  obfervationes  hujufmodi  pra^clare  ferviant 
motui  proprio  detegendo.  Prima  et  fecunda  columna 
finiftlma  tabula:  fequentis  ex  titulo  facillime  intelligitur. 
Tertia  columna  differentiam  A.  R,  in  tempore  medio  in- 
dicat  Inter  ftellam  ejufque  comitem  :  cornes  prscedens 
fixam,  primo  loco  in  tabula  fcribitur,  comes  fequens  poft 
fixam  ponitur.  Quarta  columna  differentiam  declinationis 
inter  fixam  ejufque  comitem  notat,  qaalem  ego  Manhemii 
obfervavi.  Litera  A  fignificat  comitem  elfe  auftraliorem, 
litera  B  magls  borealem.  Sequentes  columns,  obfervationes 
ejufdem  ftellce  fadas  a  Flamfteadio,  continent. 


2  20  MAYERI  OBSERVATIONES  ASTRONOMICiE. 


JV1av.:r,  Manhdim. 

FLAMb 

rAtu,  Orcenwicu.           j 

Nomina 
Fixarum. 

Diff.  A.  R. 
in  tempore. 

Differ. 
Declina. 

Diff. 
A.  R. 

Differ. 
Declina. 

1777 
Die  28  Feb. 

j)    Leonis 
Comes  7ae. 
five  8va;. 

2'.  15". 

38'.58".6.A 

2'.  18". 

38'.  50".  A 

1690 
Die  25  Mar. 

1777 

28  Feb. 

item  23  Feb. 

Com.  V  Leonis 
6ts. 
V  Leonis  4tK 

5". 

2I'.57".2.A 

2". 

22'.  S"- 

1691 
6  Aprilis. 

1777 
4  Aprilia. 

Comes 
■J"  Leonis 

I'.  5". 

8'.  0".  15.  B 

56. 

8'.  30".  B 

1690 
25  Martii. 

1777 
11  Martii. 

Propus 
Comes  jtx 

J'.  36". 

7'.  30." 

5'-  3S". 

7'.  0". 

1690 
7  Feb. 

1777 
8  Martii. 

Procyon 
Comes  11.     8v« 

I'-  4C/'-  5- 

3'.  6".  2.  A 

I'.  34". 

4'.  40".  A 

169I 
4  Oifto. 

1777 
13  Nov. 

Com.  7mje 
I  Pifcium 

51". 

2'.  5  7".  I.  B 

47"- 

2'.  30".  B 

1700 
Nov.  13. 

1777 
Aprilis  6. 

Comes 
n  Cancri 

2'.  49"- 

I'.  40".  B 

2'.  44". 

I'.  12".  B 

1690 
Feb.  1 8. 

1777 
Aprilis  8. 

Com.  yx 
/3   Leonis 

30". 

i8'.27".i.A 

33"! 

1692 
Aprilis  24. 

1776       'Arfturus 
Mai.  18.     Comes. 

0.  0.  6". 

°-  »3-  37-  3 

Com.  0.  5". 
Ar(iluru5. 

0.  26.  30. 

1690 
Febru.  14. 

1777 
Mart.  II. 

1776 
Mai.    18. 

1777 
Aprilis  I. 

Procyon 
Comes  7s. 

Arflurus 
Comes. 

0   Cancri  fcg. 
n  Cancri  6. 

39"- 

0.  0.  6. 
14'.  56". 

3'.  8".  1.  A 

0-  i3-  37-4 
-,2.  29.  6.  B 

35". 

1692 
22  Janu. 

Maskelvne. 
A.  R.       1 

0.0.4.     o.23'.58".8. 
ij.  I.         32.  25.  B 

1765 

20  Mai. 

1691 

10  Mnrtii. 

Apparet  ex  omnibus  Ardlurum  omnium  celerrime  ferri 
motu  proprio  in  occafum,  fequidem  idem  comes,  qui 
tempore  Flamfteadii  1690,  die  14  Februarii  Ardurum 
prsecedebat  5"  in  tempore  nunc  6"  poft  Ardturum  meridi- 
anum  ingreditur  :  ex  imminuta  quoque  differentia  decll- 
nationis  inter  Ardlurum  ejufque  comitem,  patet,  Ardturum 
motu  proprio  quotannis  fere  2"  in  circulo  moveri  verfus 
auftrum.  Id  ex  eo  perfpicuum  eft,  quod  declinatio  a  me 
obfervata  comitis  redudla  ad  parallelum  grenovicenfem 
eandem  producat  altitudinem  poli  grenovicenfis,  qualis  ex 
obfervatione  Flamfteadii  eruitur,  non  item  declinatio  hodie 
obfervata  Ardturi  etiam  aberratione  &  nutatione  corredta. 
Similis  indagatio  fieri  poteft  in  reliquis  fixis,  earumque 
comitibus,  atque  ex  inftituta  comparatione  cum  aliis  fixis 

deprehendi 


MAYERI  OBSERVATIONES  ASTRONOMICiE.  221 

deprehendi  poteft,  num  fixae  an  comiti  vel  utrique  motus 
proprius  tribuendis  fit. 

Obfervationes  omnes  in  piano  meridiani  quadrante  mu- 
rali  fadtae  funt  Manhemii  in  nova  fpecula  a  me  xdificata 
S.  Ele£loris  Palatini :  ejus  longitudo  ad  ortum  Grenovicii 
eft  fere  34'  6"  in  tempore,  latitudo  fere  49°  27'  50" 
Gaudebo  maxime  fi  has  meas  obfervationes  illuftriflimx 
focietati  baud  ingratas  accidifle  intellexero,  cujus  benevo- 
lentise  me  demififfime  commendo. 

Illuftriflimx  ac  celeberrimse  Societati, 
Cuetor  et  fervus  perpetuus, 

CHRISTIANUS  MAYER,  Sereniffimi 
Eledtoris  Palatini  et  Ducis  Bavarise  Aftronomus. 

Manhemii  in  Germania,') 
die  24  Aprilis  1778.    5 

(Translation.) 

To  the  illuftrious  and  celebrated  Society  of  Sciences  at 

Philadelphia, 

Christian  Mayer,  Aftronomer  to  his  Serene  High- 
nefs  the  Eledlor  Palatine, 

Wifheth  Profperity. 

I  THOUGHT  it  my  duty  to  embrace  the  opportunity 
which  my  good  friend  the  Rev.  Mr.  Ferdinand  Farmer 
has  procured  me  of  writing  to  your  illuftrious  fociety,  that 
I  may  make  fome  return  to  the  honour  which  you  have 
done  me  by  electing  and  enrolling  me  among  your  mem- 
bers. It  gave  me  a  very  fenfible  pleafure  to  find,  by  the 
printed  volume  of  tranfadions,  which  you  fent  me  about 
three  years  ago,  that  the  fcience  of  aftronomy  was  culti- 
vated even  at  Philadelphia.     That  volume  of  yours,  to- 

F  f  gether 


222        ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

gether  with  my  own  aftronomical  papers,  having  been 
unhappily  deftroyed  by  fire  about  two  years  ago,  I  have 
refolved  to  give  your  illuftrious  focicty  fome  fhort  account 
of  certain  new  celeftial  difcoveries  which  I  had  made. 

My  refidence  is  now  at  Manheim,  in  a  new  obfervatory, 
fitted  for  every  aflronomical  purpofe ;  and  Vv'ell  furnifhed 
with  the  moft  precious  and  accurate  inftruments  made  at 
London ;  amongft  which  the  chief  is  a  brafs  mural  qua- 
drant of  eight  feet  radius,  the  workmanfhip  of  that  cele- 
brated artift  Mr.  Bird,  finifhed  in  the  year  1775,  fitted 
with  an  achromatic  telefcope,  and  fixed  to  a  folid  wall  to- 
wards the  meridian.  With  this  inftrument  I  make  daily 
oblervations  of  the  heavens,  when  the  weather  will  per- 
mit, and  two  years  ago  I  diftinftly  difcovered,  among 
many  of  \hzjixedjiars  (from  the  firjl  to  'Cas.fixth  magni- 
tude) other  concomitant  or  attendant  little  Jiars ;  fome  of 
which,  from  their  mild,  faint  (or  unfparkling)  light,  have 
the  appearance  of  planets,  while  others. of  them  have  the 
appearance  of  telefcopic  ftars,  in  refpedl  to  their  fmallnefs. 

But  what  furprifed  me  moft  was,  that  none  of  thefe 
attendant  little  ftars,  a  few  perhaps  excepted,  have  ever 
been  noted  in  any  catalogue  which  I  have  fecn ;  although 
I  could  clearly  colledt  the  fingular  ul'e  which  may  be  made 
of  them  for  afcertaining  and  determining  the  proper  mo- 
tion of  the  fixed  ftars,  as  it  is  called.  When  the  difference 
of  right  afcenfion  and  declination  between  two  ftars  is  at 
moft  but  a  few  feconds,  any  variation  arifing  from  the 
preceflion  of  the  equinoxes,  the  variation  of  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic,  the  deviation  of  the  inftrument,  the  aber- 
ration of  light  or  the  nutation,  or  from  any  other  caufe 
depending  on  the  mutable  ftate  of  the  air  or  latitude  of 
places,  muft  aff"e£t  them  both  equally.  Therefore  when 
after  any  length  of  time  a  greater  variation  of  right  afcen- 
fion or  declination  is  found  in  one  of  fuch  ftars  than  in  the 
other,  it  aff"ords  a  certain  argument  of  the  proper  motion 
of  one  or  the  other,  whether  that  change  affe(Ss  the  fixed 
flar  or  its  attendant.  I  know 


ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS.        223 

I  know  that  the  celebrated  Englifh  aftronomer  Halley, 
was  the  firft  who,  about  the  year  i  719,  by  a  careful  com- 
parifon  of  the  obfervations  of  Flamitead  with  thofe  of 
Ptolemy,  refpedling  a  few  fixed  ftars,  viz.  Sirius,  Ardturus 
and  Aldebaran,  difcovered  that  thefe  ftars  had  a  proper 
motion  of  their  own.  But  I  likewifc  know,  that  in  Flam- 
Head's  Britifli  celeftial  hiftory  the  word  concomitant  or  at- 
tendant of  fixed  Jlars  is  made  ufe  of,  when  that  great  man 
had  not  even  thought  of  a  proper  motion  of  the  fixed  ftars. 

The  other  aftronomers,  pofterior  to  Halley,  as  far  as 
they  inveftigated  the  proper  motion  of  \.\\e  fixed fiars.,  fol- 
lowed the  Italian  method  of  comparing  their  own  obfer- 
vations with  thofe  of  the  ancients.  This  method  requires 
the  labour  of  prolix  calculation,  and  remains  liable  to 
doubts  and  uncertainty,  on  account  of  the  inaccuracy  of 
ancient  inftruments  and  obfervations.  My  new  method 
is  not  liable  to  fuch  objections,  becaufe  from  the  obferved 
variation  of  the  attendant  ftar  and  the  brighter  fixed  ftar, 
it  immediately  follows  that  there  is  a  proper  motion  giv- 
en, either  of  the  one  or  the  other. 

I  have,  therefore,  in  the  fpace  of  two  years,  obferved 
almoft  two  hundred  attendants  of  diff'erent  fixed  ftars, 
running  almoft  the  fame  parallel,  immediately  before 
or  after  the  fixed  ftar ;  and  have  communicated  many 
of  fuch  obfervations  to  the  celebrated  Englifli  aftronomer 
Nevil  Maflcelyne,  who  has  exprefled  his  high  fatisfadlion 
therewith. 

Out  of  many  obfervations,  I  fend  your  illuftrious  foci- 
ety  a  few  by  way  of  fpecimen,  being  fuch  whereof  I  find 
correfpondent  obfervations  in  the  Flamfteadian  celeftial 
hiftory  ;  whence  it  appears  at  once  how  excellently  ob- 
fervations of  this  kind  ferve  for  difcovering  the  proper  mo- 
tion of  fuch  ftars. 

The  firft  and  fecond  column  of  the  following  table  next 
to  the  left  hand  is  eafily  underftood  from  its  title.  The 
third  column  fhews  the  difference  of  A.  R.  in  mean  time 

F  f  2  between 


2  24        ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS, 

between  the  attendant  and^^r.  The  attendant  which  pre- 
cedes the  fixed  ilar  occupies  the  firll  place  in  the  table. 
The  fubfequent  attendant  is  placed  after  the  fixed  ftar. 
The  fourth  column  fhews  the  difference  of  declination  be- 
tween the  fixed  ftar  and  attendant.  The  letter  A,  fignifies 
that  the  attendant  is  more  fouth,  B,  that  it  is  more  north 
than  the  ftar.  The  fubfequent  columns  contain  Flam- 
ftead's  obfervations  of  the  fame  fixed  ftars. 

The     table. 


Ky  Maver,  at 

Manheim. 

By  Flamstead,  at  Cireeuvvich.      | 

rime  of  Ob- 

fervation. 

Names  of 
Star. 

Diff.  A.  R. 

in  time. 

Differ. 
ofDecUna. 

Diff.    A.  R. 
in  time. 

Differ, 
of  Declina. 

Time  of  Ob- 
fervation. 

1777 
Februar.  28. 

f    Leonis 
attendant  7m. 

2'.  15"- 

38'.58".6.A 

2'.  18". 

38'.  50".  A 

1690 

March  25. 

1777 
Feb.  25,  28. 

Attend.  6m. 
y  Leonis  4m. 

J". 

2l'.57".2.A 

a". 

22'.  S". 

1691 
6  April. 

1777 
April  4. 

Attendant, 
T  Leonis 

I'.  5". 

8'.  0".  15.  B 

56. 

8'.  30".  B 

1690 
25  March. 

1777 
March   11. 

Propus 
attendant  jm. 

5'.  36". 

7'.  30." 

5'-  38"- 

7'.  0". 

1690 
7  Feb. 

1777 
March  8. 

Procyon 
attendant  8m. 

I'.  40".  5- 

3'.  6".  2.  A 

I'.  34". 

4'.  40".  A 

1691 

4oao. 

1777 
13  Nov. 

Attendant  7m. 
i  Pifcium 

51"- 

2'.J7".  I.B 

47". 

2'.  30".  B 

1700 

Nov.   13. 

1777 
April  6. 

Attendant, 
n  Cancri 

a'.  49". 

I'.  40".  B 

2'.  44". 

I'.  12".  B 

1690 
Feb.  18. 

I7'^7 
April  8. 

Attendant  7m. 
/S  Leonis 

30". 

l8'.27".l.A 

Zf\ 

l6yi 
April  24. 

1776        Arifturus 
May  18.      Attendant, 

0.  0.  6". 

0.  23.  37.  3 

.Com.  0.  5". 
Arifturus. 

0.  26.  30. 

1690 
Febru.  14. 

1777        Procyon 
March  II.  Attendant    7m. 

39"- 

0.  0.  6. 
14'.  56". 

3'.  8".  I.  A 

0.  23.  37.  4 
;,2.  29.  6.  B 

3.5". 

1692 
22  Janu. 

1776 
May   18. 

1777 
April  I. 

AriSlurus 
Attendant, 

0   Cancri 
n  Cancri  6m. 

Maskelvne. 
A.  R. 

0.0.4.     o.23'.58".8. 
15.   I.          32.  2J.  B 

1765 

;o  May. 

1691 

in  March. 

It  appears  from  every  obfervation,  that  of  all  the  ftars, 
Ardturus,  by  his  proper  motion,  is  carried  with  the  great- 
eft  celerity  weftward  ;  fince  the  fame  attendant,  which  in 

Elamftead's 


\ 


ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS.        2-2.f 

Flamftead's  time,  1690,  February  14,  preceded  Ar£lurus 
5"  in  time,  now  comes  to  the  meridian  6"  after  him. 
Likewife  from  the  very  fmall  difference  of  declination  be- 
tween Ar£lurus  and  his  attendant,  it  appears  that  Ardiu- 
rus  by  his  proper  motion  moves  almoft  2"  foutherly  every 
year  in  a  circle. 


N°  XXVIII. 

Obfefuations  on  the  Caiife  and  Cure  of  the  Tetanust  by 
Benjamin  Rush,  M.  D.  Profejfor  of  Chemiftry  in 
the  Univerftty  of  Pennfyl'uania. 

ReadMar.  g  ^  U R I N  G  my  attcndancc  upon  the  military 
17. 1786.  ^^  hofpitals  of  the  United  States,  in  the  courfe 
of  the  late  war,  I  met  with  feveral  cafes  of  the  Tetanus.  I 
had  frequently  met  with  this  diforder  in  private  pradlice,  and 
am  forry  to  fay  that  I  never  fucceeded  with  the  ordinary  re- 
medy of  opium  in  any  one  cafe  that  came  under  my  care.  I 
found  it  equally  ineffectual  in  the  army.  Baffled  in  my  ex- 
pe(5tations  from  a  remedy  that  had  been  fo  much  celebrated, 
I  began  to  inveftigate  more  particularly  the  nature  of  the 
diforder.  I  found  it  to  be  a  diforder  of  warm  climates,  and 
warm  feafons.  This  led  me  to  afcribe  it  to  relaxation.  I 
refolved  to  attempt  the  cure  of  it  by  a  fet  of  medicines  in 
fome  meafure  the  oppofites  of  moft  of  the  medicines  that 
had  been  employed  in  that  diforder.  Soon  after  I  adopt- 
ed this  refolution,  I  was  called  to  vifit  Col.  John  Stone, 
■who  was  wounded  through  the  foot  at  the  battle  of  Ger- 
mantown  on  the  4th  of  Odtober  1777.  -^^  ^'^^  '"  ^^ 
third  day  of  a  Tetanus,  His  fpafms  were  violent  and  his 
pains  fo  exquifite  that  his  cries  were  heard  near  a  hun- 
dred yards  from  his  quarters.  His  head  was  thrown  a  little 
backwards,  and  his  jaw  had  become  fliff  and  contradled.. 

He 


226       OBSERVATIONS  on  the  TETANUS. 

He  was  under  the  care  of  a  fkilful  regimental  furgeon 
who  was  pouring  down  opium  in  large  quantities  with- 
out effedt. 

Duty  and  friendftiip  both  led  me  to  do  my  utmoft  to  fave 
the  life  of  this  valuable  officer.  I  immediately  difmifled 
the  opium,  and  gave  him  large  quantities  of  wine  and 
bark,  to  the  amount  of  two  or  three  ounces  of  the  latter, 
and  from  a  bottle  to  three  pints  of  the  former  in  the  day. 
In  a  few  hours  I  was  delighted  with  their  effedls.  His 
fpafms  and  pains  were  lefs  frequent  and  violent,  and  he 
flept  for  feveral  hours,  which  he  had  not  done  for  feveral 
days  and  nights  before. 

With  the  fame  indication  in  view,  I  applied  a  blifter  be- 
tween his  fhoulders,  and  rubbed  in  two  or  three  ounces 
of  mercurial  ointment  upon  theoutfide  of  his  throat.  He 
continued  to  mend  gradually  under  the  operation  of  thefe 
medicines,  fo  that  in  ten  days  he  was  out  of  danger,  al- 
though the  fpafm  continued  in  his  wounded  foot  for  feve- 
ral weeks  afterwards.  In  the  fummer  of  the  year  1782 
I  was  called  to  vifit  a  fervant  girl  of  Mr.  Alexander 
Todd,  merchant  of  this  city,  who  had  brought  on  a  Teta- 
nus by  fleeping  in  the  evening  on  a  damp  brick  pave- 
ment, after  a  day  in  which  the  mercury  in  Farenheit's 
thermometer  had  flood  at  near  90°.  The  cafe  was  near- 
ly as  violent  and  alarming  as  the  one  I  have  defcribed. 
I  treated  her  in  the  fame  manner,  and  with  the  fame  fuc- 
cefs.  To  the  above  named  medicines,  1  added  only  the 
oil  of  amber  which  fhe  took  in  large  dofes,  after  I  fuf- 
pedl:ed  the  tonic  powers  of  the  bark  and  wine  began  to 
loofe  their  effedls.  The  good  effedts  of  the  oil  were  very 
obvious.  She  recovered  gradually  and  has  continued  ever 
fmce  in  good  health.  In  the  fummer  of  the  fame  year 
I  was  called  to  Alexander  Leflie,  a  joiner,  who  had  run  a 
nail  in  his  foot.  I  found  him  the  day  afterv/ards  in  ex- 
treme pain,  with  fmall  convulfions  and  now  and  then  a 
twinge  in  his  jaw.     The  wound  in  his  foot  was  without 

fwelling 


OBSERVATIONS  on  the  TETANUS.       227 

fwclling  or  inflammation.  I  dilated  the  wound  and  filled  it 
with  lint  moiftcned  with  fpirit  of  turpentine.  This  in  a 
little  while  produced  a  good  deal  of  pain  and  a  great  inflam- 
mation in  his  foot.  While  I  was  preparing  to  treat  him  in 
the  manner  I  had  treated  the  two  former  cafes,  the  pains 
and  fpafms  in  his  body  fuddenly  left  him,  and  in  twenty- 
four  hours  after  I  faw  him,  he  complained  of  nothing  but 
of  the  pain  and  fwelling  in  his  foot,  which  continued  for 
feveral  weeks  and  did  not  leave  him  till  it  ended  in  a  fup- 
puration.  From  the  hifl:ory  of  thefe  three  cafes,  I  beg 
leave  to  make  the  following  remarks. 

1.  That  the  prcdifpofition  to  the  Tetanus  depends  upon 
relaxation.  This  relaxation  is  generally  produced  by  heat; 
but  exceflive  labour,  watchings,  marches,  or  fatigue  from 
any  caufe,  all  produce  it  llkewife,  and  hence  we  find  it  more 
frequent  from  wounds  received  in  battles,  than  from  fimi- 
lar  wounds  received  in  any  other  way.  Thefe  wounds 
more  certainly  produce  the  Tetanus,  if  they  have  been 
preceded  for  fome  time  with  warm  weather.  Dr.  Shoepft, 
the  phyfician  general  of  the  Anfpach  troops  that  ferved  at 
the  fiege  of  York  in  the  year  1 78 1,  informed  me  of  a  fin- 
gular  fail  upon  this  fubjecS.  Upon  converfing  with  the 
French  lurgeons  after  the  capitulation,  he  was  informed 
by  them  that  the  troops  who  arrived  juft  before  the  fiege 
from  the  Weft-Indies  with  Count  de  Graife,  were  the  only 
troops  belonging  to  their  nation  that  fuff'ered  from  the 
Tetanus.  There  was  not  a  fingle  inftance  of  that  difor- 
der  among  the  troops  who  had  fpent  a  winter  in  Rhode- 
Ifland. 

2.  As  the  Tetanus  feems  to  be  occafioned  by  relaxati- 
on, th"?  medicines  indicated  to  cure  it  are  fuch  only  as  are 
calculated  to  remove  this  relaxation  and  to  reftore  a  tone  to 
the  fyftem.  The  bark  and  wine  appear  to  adl  in  this  way. 
The  operation  of  the  blifters  is  of  a  more  complicated  na- 
ture. That  they  are  fedative  and  antifpafmodic  in  fevers 
is  univerfally  acknowledged,  but  in  the  peculiar  ftate  of 

irritability 


228       OBSERVATIONS  on  the  TETANUS. 

irritability  which  occurs  in  the  Tetanus,  perhaps  their  ef- 
fe£ls  are  more  fimply  ftimulating.  But  I  will  go  one  flep 
further.  In  order  to  cure  this  diforder,  it  is  neceflary  not  only 
to  produce  an  ordinary  tone  in  the  fyflem,  but  fomething  like 
the  inflammatory  diathefis.  The  abfence  of  this  diathefis  is 
taken  notice  of  by  all  authors,  particularly  by  Dr.  Cullen*. 

Mercury  appears  to  adl  only  by  promoting  this  diathefis. 
Hence  it  never  does  any  fervice  unlefs  it  be  given  time 
enough  to  produce  a  falivation.  The  irritation  and  in- 
flammation produced  in  the  mouth  and  throat,  feldom  fail 
to  produce  the  inflammatory  diathefis,  as  blood  drawn  in 
a  ialivation  has  repeatedly  fhewn. 

I  apprehend  that  the  oil  of  amber  adis  as  a  fl;imulant 
chiefly  in  this  diforder.  I  have  heard  of  a  Tetanus  being 
cured  in  the  ifland  of  Grenada  by  large  dofes  of  muftard. 
Dr.  Wright,  lately  of  the  ifland  of  Jamaica,  relates  in  the 
6th  volume  of  the  London  Medical  Eflays,  feveral  remark- 
able cafes  of  the  Tetanus  being  cured  by  the  cold  bath. 
Both  thefe  remedies  certainly  a£t  as  ftimulants  and  tonics. 
By  reafoning  a  priori,  I  conceive  that  electricity  would  be 
found  to  be  an  equally  powerful  remedy  in  this  diforder. 

As  a  general  inflammatory  diathefis  difpofes  to  topical 
inflammation,  fo  topical  inflammation  difpofes  to  general 
inflammatory  diathefis.  Wounds  upon  this  account  are 
lefs  apt  to  inflame  in  fummer  than  in  winter.  In  the  Te- 
tanus I  have  uniformly  obferved  an  abfence  of  all  inflam- 
mation in  the  wounds  or  injuries  that  produced  it.  A 
fplinter  under  the  nail  produces  no  convulfions,  if  pain, 
inflammation  and  fuppuration  follow  the  accident.  It  is 
by  exciting  pain  and  inflammation  I  apprehend  that  the 
fpirit  of  turpentine  ads  in  all  wounds  and  punctures  of 
nervous  and  tendinous  parts.  I  have  never  known  a  fingle 
inftance  of  a  Tetanus  from  a  wound,  where  this  remedy 
had  been  applied  in  time.  It  was  to  excite  an  inflamma- 
tion in  the  foot  of  Mr.  Leflie,  that  I  dilated  the  wound 

and 

*  Firft  Lines,  Vol.  IIL 


OBSERVATIONS  on  the  TETANUS.       229 

and  filled  it  with  the  fpirit  of  turpentine.  I  was  not  fur- 
priled  at  its  good  effeds  in  this  cafe,  for  I  was  prepared 
to  expcdl  them. 

I  find  a  remarkable  cafe  related  in  Dr.  W.  Monroe's 
Thefis,  publilhed  in  Edinburgh  in  the  year  1783,  of  a 
black  girl  who  had  a  Tetanus  from  running  a  nail  in  her 
foot,  being  perfeftly  cured  by  deep  andextenfive  incifions 
being  made  in  the  wounded  part  by  Dr.  John  Bell,  of  the 
ifland  of  Grenada. 

It  is  by  producing  inflammation  in  a  particular  part, 
and  tone  in  the  whole  fyftem,  I  apprehend  that  the  am- 
putation of  a  wounded  limb  fometimes  cures  a  Tetanus ; 
and  it  is  becaufe  the  degrees  of  both  are  too  inconfiderable 
to  oppofe  the  violence  of  the  fpafins  in  the  advanced  ftages 
of  the  Tetanus,  that  amputation  often  fails  of  fuccefs. 

I  have  been  informed  by  a  phyfician  who  refided  fome 
time  at  St.  Croix,  that  the  negroes  on  that  ifland  always 
apply  a  plaifter  made  of  equal  parts  of  fait  and  tallow  to 
their  "freih  wounds,  in  order  to  prevent  a  locked  jaw. 
The  fait  always  produces  fome  degree  of  inflammation. 

If  the  fails  that  have  been  ftated  are  true,  and  the  in- 
ferences that  have  been  drawn  from  them  are  jufl:,  how 
fliall  we  account  for  the  adion  of  opium  in  curing  this 
diforder  ?  I  do  not  deny  its  good  eftedts  in  many  cafes,  but 
I  believe  it  has  failed  in  four  cafes  out  of  five  in  the  hands 
of  moft  practitioners.  It  is  remarkable  that  it  fucceeds 
only  where  it  is  given  in  very  large  dofes.  In  thefe  cafes 
I  would  fuppofe  that  its  fedative  powers  are  loft  in  its  fli- 
mulating.  It  is  upon  a  footing,  therefore,  in  one  refpedl, 
with  the  ftimulating  medicines  that  have  been  mentioned; 
but  from  its  being  combined  with  a  fedative  quality,  it  is 
probably  inferior  to  moft  of  them.  I  am  the  more  inclin- 
ed to  adopt  this  opinion,  from  an  account  I  once  received 
from  Dr.  Robert,  of  the  ifland  of  Dominique,  who  in- 
formed me  that  after  having  cured  a  negro  man  of  a  Te- 
tanus with  large  dofes  of  opium,  he  was  afterwards  feized 

G  g  with 


^3,o       OBSERVATIONS  on  the  TETANUS. 

with  a  diforder  in  his  flomach,  of  which  he  died  in  a  few 
days.  Upon  opening  him,  he  found  his  ftomach  inflam- 
ed and  mortified.  I  do  not  forhid  the  ufe  of  opium  alto- 
gether in  this  diforder.  I  think  fmall  dofes  of  it  may  be 
given  to  eafe  pain,  as  in  other  fpafmodic  diforders  ;  but  as 
its  qualities  are  complicated,  and  its  efficacy  doubtful,  I 
think  it  ought  to  yield  to  more  fimple  and  more  powerful 
remedies. 

To  the  cafes  that  have  been  mentioned,  I  could  add 
many  others,  in  which  I  have  reafon  to  believe  that  the 
excitement  of  a  topical  inflammation  by  artificial  means, 
has  eff"e£lually  prevented  a  Tetanus. 

To  this  account  of  the  Tetanus,  I  beg  leave  to  fubjoin 
a  few  words  upon  a  diforder  commonly  called  the  jaw-fall 
in  infants,  or  the  Trifmus  Nafcentium  of  Dr.  CuUen, 
which  is  nothing  but  a  fpecies  of  Tetanus. 

I  have  met  with  three  cafes  of  it  in  this  city,  all  of 
which  proved  fatal.  The  ftage  of  the  diforder  in  which 
I  was  confulted,  and  the  age  and  weaknefs  of  the  infants, 
forbad  me  to  attempt  any  thing  for  their  relief.  I  have 
introduced  the  fubje£l  of  this  diforder  in  children,  only 
for  the  fake  of  mentioning  a  fadl  communicated  to  me  by 
the  late  Dr.  Cadwalader  Evans  of  this  city.  This  gentle- 
man praQiifed  phylic  for  feveral  years  in  Jamaica,  where 
he  had  frequent  opportunities  of  feeing  the  Tetanus  in 
the  black  children.  He  found  it  in  every  cafe  to  be  in- 
curable. He  fuppofed  it  to  be  occafioned  by  the  retention 
of  the  meconium  in  the  bowels.  This  led  him  mvaria- 
bly  to  purge  every  child  that  was  born  upon  the  eftates 
committed  to  his  care.  After  he  adopted  this  practice, 
he  never  met  with  a  fingle  inflance  of  the  Tetanus  among 
children. 

Perhaps  it  may  tend  to  enlarge  our  ideas  of  the  Teta- 
nus, and  to  promote  a  fpirit  of  enquiry  and  experiment,  to 
add,  that  this  diforder  is  not  confined  to  the  human  fpecies. 
I  have  known  feveral  inftances  of  it  in  horfes  from  nails 

running 


OBSERVATIONS  on  the  TETANUS.       231 

running  in  their  feet,  and  other  accidents.  It  is  attended 
with  a  rigidity  of  the  mufcles  of  the  neck,  a  ftiffnefs  ia 
the  limbs,  and  fuch  a  contradion  of  the  jaw  as  to  pre- 
vent their  eating.  It  is  generally  fatal.  In  two  cafes 
I  had  the  pleafure  of  feeing  the  difcafe  perfedly  cured 
by  applying  a  potential  cauftic  to  the  neck  under  the 
mane,  by  large  dofes  of  oil  of  amber,  and  by  plunging 
one  of  them  into  the  river,  and  throwing  buckets  of  cold 
water  upon  the  other. 

How  far  the  reafonings  contained  in  this  paper  may 
apply  to  the  hydrophobia,  I  cannot  determine,  having  had 
no  opportunity  of  feeing  the  difeafe  fince  I  adopted  thefe 
principles  ;  but  from  the  fpafmodic  nature  of  the  diforder, 
from  the  feafon  of  the  year  in  which  it  generally  occurs, 
and  above  all,  from  the  cafe  related  by  Dr.  Fothergill,  of  a 
young  woman  having  efcaped  the  effedls  of  the  bite  of  a 
mad  cat  by  means  of  the  wound  being  kept  open,  (which 
from  its  feverity  was  probably  connected  with  fome  degrees 
of  inflammation)  is  it  not  probable  that  the  fame  remedies, 
which  have  been  ufed  with  fuccefs  in  the  Tetanus,  may  be 
ufed  with  advantage  in  the  hydrophobia? — In  a  difeafe  lo 
deplorable,  and  hitherto  fo  unfuccefsfuUy  treated,  even  a 
conjediure  may  lead  to  ufeful  experiments  and  enquiries. 


N°  XXIX. 

To  His  Excellency  Benjamin  Franklin,  Efq.  L.  L.  D. 
■     Prejident  of  the  State  of  Pennfyl'uania^  and  of  the  Ame~ 
rican  Phtlofophical  Society ■,  <^'c, 

S  I  R,  Philadelphia,  January  12,  1786. 

^Tf  ^86*  nPHE  fubjed  of  fmoky  chimneys,  of  which 

J_     I  had  the  honor  of  converfing  with  you  at 

your  own  houfe  laft  evening,  is  of  fo  much  importance  to 

G  g  a  every 


232  LETTER    CONCERNING 

every  individual,  as  well  as  to  every  private  family,  that 
too  much  light  cannot  be  thrown  upon  il. 

A  fmoky  houfe  and  a  fcolding  wife, 

Are  (faid  to  be)  two  of  the  greateft  ills  in  life. 

And  however  difficult  it  may  be  to  remedy  one  of  thofe 
ills,  yet  any  advances  we  may  be  able  to  make  towards 
removing  the  inconvenicncies  arifmgfrom  the  other,  can- 
not fail  to  be  favourably  received  by  the  public.  As  they 
are  fhortly  to  be  favoured  with  your  fentiments  on  that 
fiibjeft,  poffibly  the  following  obfervations,  which  were 
in  fa£l  occaiioned  by  neceffity,  and  are  the  refult  of  my 
'own  experience,  may  not  be  altogether  undeferving  of 
notice. 

When  I  left  London  and  went  to  live  in  Devonfhire  in 
the  latter  end  of  the  year  1777,  it  happened  to  be  my  lot 
to  dwell  in  an  old  manfion  which  had  been  recently  mo- 
dernifed,  and  had  undergone  a  thorough  repair.  But  as 
in  moft  of  the  old  houles  in  England,  the  chimneys,  which 
were  perhaps  originally  built  for  the  purpofe  of  burning 
wood,  though  they  had  been  contraded  in  front,  fmce  coal 
fires  came  into  general  ufe,  to  the  modern  fize,  yet  they 
were  ftill,  above,  out  of  fight,  extravagantly  large.  This 
method  of  building  chimneys  may  perhaps  have  anfwered 
well  enough  while  it  was  the  cuftom  to  fit  with  the  doors 
and  windows  open;  but  when  the  cuftoms  and  manners 
of  the  people  began  to  be  more  polifl\ed  and  refined,  when 
building  and  archite£lure  were  improved,  and  they  began 
to  conceive  the  idea  of  making  their  chambers  clofe,  warm, 
and  comfortable,  thefe  chimneys  were  found  to  fmoke 
abominably,  for  want  of  a  fufficient  fupply  of  air.  This 
was  exactly  the  cafe  with  the  houfe  in  which  I  firfi:  lived, 
near  Exeter,  and  I  was  under  the  neceffity  of  trying  every 
expedient  I  could  think  of  to  make  it  habitable. 

The  firft  thing  1  tried,  was  that  method  of  contracting 
the  chimneys  by  means  of  earthen  pots,  much  in  uie  in 

England, 


J. 


CHIMNEYS.      .  23J 

England,  which  are  made  on  purpofe,  and  which  are  put 
upon  the  tops  of  them  ;  but  this  method  by  no  means  an- 
fwered.  I  then  thought  of  contrading  them  below,  but 
as  the  method  of  contradting  them  in  front  to  the  fize  of 
a  fmall  coal-fire  grate  has  an  unfightly  appearance,  as  it 
makes  a  difagreeable  blowing  like  a  furnace,  and  as  it  is 
the  occafion  of  confuming  a  great  deal  of  unneceffary 
fuel,  the  heat  of  which  is  immediately  hurried  up  the 
chimney,  I  rejecSted  this  method,  and  determined  to  con- 
trad:  them  above,  a  little  out  of  fight.  For  this  purpofe 
I  threw  an  arch  acrofs,  and  alfo  drew  them  in  at  the  fides. 
This  had  fome  effedl,  but  as  this  contratftion  w^as  made 
rather  fuddenly,  and  the  fmoke,  by  flriking  againft  the 
corners  that  were  thereby  occafioned,  was  apt  to  recoil,  by 
v,hich  means  fome  part  of  it  was  thrown  out  into  the 
room  ;  I  determined  to  make  the  contraction  more  gra- 
dually, and  therefore  run  it  up  at  the  back,  where  the 
depth  of  the  chimney  would  admit  of  it,  and  alfo  {helving 
or  Hoping  in  a  conical  kind  of  direQion  at  the  fides,  as 
high  as  a  man,  Handing  upright,  could  conveniently  reach, 
and  by  this  means  brought  the  cavity  within  the  ipace  of 
about  twelve  by  fourteen  or  fixteen  inches,  which  I  found 
fufficiently  large  to  adm.it  a  boy  to  go  up  and  down  to 
fweep  the  chimnies.  This  me:hod  I  found  to  fucceed  per- 
feflly  well,  as  to  curing  the  chimneys  of  fmoking,  and  it 
had  this  good  efTedl  of  making  the  rooms  confiderably 
warmer ;  and  as  this  experiment  fucceeded  fo  well,  fince 
the  only  ufe  of  a  chimney  is  to  convey  away  the  fmoke, 
I  determined  to  carry  it  ftill  farther,  in  order  to  afcertain 
with  precifion,  how  much  fpace  is  abfolutely  neceffary  for 
that  purpofe,  becaufe  all  the  reft  that  is  fliut  up,  muft  be 
fo  much  gained  in  warmth.  Accordingly  I  laid  a  piece 
,  of  flatc  acrofs  the  remaining  aperture,  removable  at  plea— 
fare,  fo  as  to  contract  the  fpace  above  two  thirds,  leaving 
about  three  inches  by  twelve  remaining  open  ;  but  this 
fpace,  except  when  the  fire  burnt  remarkably  clear,  was 

fcarcely 


234  LETTER  concerning 

fcarcely  fufEcient  to  carry  away  the  fmoke.  I  therefore 
enlarged  it  to  half  the  Ipace,  that  is,  to  about  fix  by  feven 
or  eight  inches,  which  I  found  fully  fufficient  to  carry 
away  the  fmoke  from  the  largeft  fires. 

When  I  removed  into  the  Bedford  Circus  in  Exeter, 
though  the  houfe  was  modern,  and  almoft  perfedly  new, 
yet  the  chimneys  were  large  ;  in  confequence  of  which  al- 
moft every  room  of  it  fmoked.  My  predeceflbr,  who  was 
the  firft  inhabitant,  had  been  at  great  expence  in  patent 
ftoves,  &c.  but  without  effed: ;  but  by  adopting  the  me- 
thod I  have  juft  now  defcribed,  I  not  only  cured  every 
chimney  of  finoking,  but  my  houfe  was  remarked  for  be- 
ing one  of  the  warmeft  and  moft  comfortable  to  live  in  of 
any  in  that  large  and  opulent  city. 

The  houfe  1  now  live  in,  in  Philadelphia,  I  am  told, 
has  always  had  the  character  of  being  both  cold  and 
fmoky  ;  and  I  was  convinced,  as  foon  as  I  faw  the  rooms 
and  examined  the  chimneys,  that  it  deferved  that  charac- 
ter ;  for  though  the  rooms  were  clofe,  the  chimneys  were 
large  :  And  we  fhall  ever  find,  that  if  our  chimneys  are 
large,  our  rooms  will  be  cold  even  though  they  fhould  be 
tolerably  clofe  and  tight ;  becaufe  the  conftant  rufhing  in 
of  the  cold  air  at  the  cracks  and  crevices,  and  alio  at 
€very  opening  of  the  door  will  be  fufficient  to  chill  the  air, 
as  taft  as  it  is  heated,  or  to  force  the  heated  air  up  the 
chimney;  but  by  contracting  the  chimneys  I  have  cured 
it  of  both  thefe  defedts.  There  was  one  remarkable  cir- 
cumftance  attending  the  contradion  of  the  chimney  in 
the  front  parlour,  which  deferves  to  be  attended  to ; 
■which  was,  that  before  I  applied  the  caft  iron  plate,  which 
I  made  ufe  of  inftead  of  flate,  to  diminifh  the  fpace  requi- 
fite  for  a  chimney  fweeper's  boy  to  go  up  and  down,  the 
fudion  or  draught  of  air  was  fo  great,  that  it  was  with 
difficulty  I  could  fhut  the  door  of  the  room,  infomuch  that 
I  at  firft  thought  it  was  owing  to  a  tightnefs  of  the  hinges, 
which  1  imagined  muft  be  remedied,  but  upon  applying 

the 


CHIMNEYS.  ^35 

the  iron  plate,  by  which  the  fpace  was  diminifhed  one 
half,  the  door  ihut  to  with  the  greateft  eafe.  This  ex- 
traordinary prefTure  of  the  air  upon  the  door  of  the  room, 
or  fudtion  of  the  chimney,  I  take  to  be  owing  in  fome 
meafure  to  the  unufual  height  of  the  houfe. 

Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  this  fa£l  feems  clearly  af- 
certained,  viz.  That  the  flue  or  fize  of  the  chimney, 
ought  always  to  be  proportioned  to  the  tightnefs  and  clofe- 
nefs  of  the  room,  fome  air  is  undoubtedly  neceflary  to  be 
admitted  into  the  room  in  order  to  carry  up  the  fmoke, 
otherwife  as  you  juftly  obferved  we  might  as  well  expert 
I'moke  to  arife  out  of  an  exhaufted  receiver;  but  if  the 
flue  is  very  large,  and  the  room  is  tight,  either  the  fmoke 
will  not  afcend,  in  confequence  of  which  will  be,  that  the 
air  of  your  room  will  be  fo  frequently  and  fo  conftantly 
changed  that  as  faft  as  it  is  heated,  it  will  be  hurried 
away,  with  the  fmoke,  up  the  chimney,  and  of  courfe 
your  room  will  be  conftantly  cold. 

One  great  advantage  attending  this  method  of  curing 
fmoky  chimneys  is,  that,  in  the  firft  place,  it  makes  no 
aukvvard  or  unfightly  appearance,  nothing  being  to  be 
feen  but  what  is  ufual  to  chimneys  in  common;  and  in 
the  fecond  place  that  it  is  attended  with  very  little  ex- 
pence,  a  few  bricks  and  mortar  with  a  plate  or  covering 
to  the  aperture,  and  a  little  labour,  being  all  that  is  requi- 
fite.  But  in  this  new  country  where  crops  of  houfes  may 
be  expected  to  rife  almoft  as  quick  as  fields  of  corn,  when 
the  principles  upon  which  chimneys  ought  to  be  thorough- 
ly underftood,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  that  not  only  this  ex- 
pence,  fmall  as  it  is,  but  that  all  the  other  inconveniencies 
we  have  been  fpeaking  of,  will  be  avoided,  by  conftrucf^- 
ing  the  flues  of  the  chimneys  fufliciently  fmall. 

From  your  humble  fervant,. 

TFIOMAS  RUSTON.. 


I     ^3(^    ] 


N°  XXX. 

Obfervations  on  the  annual  Pajfage  of  Herrings^  by 
Mr.  John    Gilpin. 

AS  this  very  ufeful  part  of  the  finny  race  has  nevef 
been  found  in  the  frefh  rivers,  or  waters  of  Eu- 
rope, it  remains  a  query  amongft  the  naturahfts,  where 
they  go  to  fpawn  and  perpetuate  their  fpecies.  I  appre- 
hend this  query  may  be  anfwered  to  the  fatisfaftion  of  the 
curious  by  an  account  of  their  annual  progrefs,  from 
which  it  will  appear  they  are  a  fifh  of  paffage,  and  ob- 
ferve  one  regular  annual  rout  in  the  fea,  fhifting  their 
climate  with  the  fun,  and  that  it  is  the  fame  fcoole  which 
is  found  at  different  times  about  Britain  and  in  America. 
This  opinion  is  founded  on  obfervations  made  on  feeing 
them  caught  at  Whitehaven  and  in  this  country,  from 
which  I  have  not  obferved  that  there  is  any  vifible  differ- 
ence in  the  fifh  in  the  different  -places,  except  that  thofe 
at  Whitehaven  are  fatter  and  rounder  than  thofe  in 
America  ;  but  this  difference  is  not  fo  great  as  that  be- 
tween the  fpring  and  fall  mackarel,  and  which  I  conceive 
might  be  accounted  for  from  the  time  of  the  year,  and 
manner  in  which  they  appear  on  each  coafl.  For  they  are 
found  on  the  other  fide  the  Atlantic,  or  rather  in  the  North 
fea,  in  the  favourable  month  of  June  about  the  iflands  of 
Shetland,  from  whence  they  proceed  down  to  the  Ork- 
neys, and  then  dividing,  they  furround  the  iflands  of 
Great-Britain  and  Ireland,  and  unite  again  off  the  Land's 
End  in  the  Britifh  channel  in  September,  from  whence 
this  grand  united  fcoole  fleers  fouth-wefl,  and  is  not  found 
any  more  on  that  fide  or  in  the  Atlantic,  until  the  fame 
time  the  enfiiing  year,  but  appear  next  on  the  American 

coafls. 


Of     herrings. 


'■^7 


coafts.  They  arrive  in  Georgia  and  Carolina  the  latter 
end  of  January,  and  in  Virginia  in  February  ;  and  coaft- 
ing  from  thence  eaflward  to  New-England,  they  divide 
and  go  into  all  the  bays,  rivers,  creeks  and  even  fmall 
flreams  of  water  in  amazing  quantities,  and  continue 
fpawning  in  the  frefh  water  until  the  latter  end  of  April, 
■when  the  old  fifh  return  into  the  fea,  where  they  change 
their  latitudes  by  a  northward  diredion  and  arrive  at  New- 
foundland in  May;  after  which  we  neither  hear  or  fee  any 
thing  more  of  them  in  America,  until  their  return  amongft 
us  the  enfuing  fpring,  and  bring  with  them  a  providential 
bleffing  to  the  poor.  Their  coming  fooneror  later  up  our 
rivers  depends  on  the  warmth  orcoolnefsof  the  feafon:  And 
it  is  further  obferved  that  if  a  few  warm  days  invite  them 
up,  and  cool  weather  fucceeds,  it  totally  checks  their  paflage 
until  more  warm  weather  returns.  From  all  which  cir- 
cumftances  it  appears  probable  there  is  a  certain  degree  of 
warmth  particularly  agreeable  to  them,  which  they  en- 
deavour to  enjoy  by  changing  their  latitude  according  to 
the  diftances  of  the  fun.  Thus  they  are  found  in  the  Bri- 
tifh  channel  in  September,  but  leave  it  when  the  fun  is  at 
too  great  a  diftance  from  them  in  the  fouthern  hemifphere, 
and  pufli  for  a  more  agreeable  climate;  and  when  the 
weather  in  America  becomes  too  warm  in  May,  (after 
having  depofited  their  eggs  in  fhallow  water  and  fecured 
their  young  fry  from  the  fifh  of  prey,)  fteer  the  courfe 
which  leads  to  the  cooler  northern  feas,  and  by  that  pru- 
dent change  of  place  perpetually  enjoy  the  temperature  of 
climate  heft  adapted  to  their  nature;  which  from  the  table 
hereto  annexed,  fhewing  the  places  and  times  of  their  vi- 
fitation,  and  the  calculation  of  the  dirtance  of  the  fun  at 
thofe  times  from  them,  is  that  degree  of  warmth  which 
is  produced  by  the  mean  diftance  between  37  to  43  de- 
grees ;  except  whilft  they  are  fpawning  ;  during  which 
they  bear  a  greater  degree  of  heat  from  the  necefTity  of 
remaining  in  it  a  fhort  time  to  fpawn  ;  and  alfo  on  the 
other  extreme,  when  detained  at  too  great  a  diftance  by 
the  iiland  of  Great-Britain  and  its  dependencies. 

H  h  Here 


23S 


On  tre  annual  PASSAGE 


Here  another  query  occurs,  what  becomes  of  the  young*- 
fry,  the  prockice  of  the  fpawn  they  left  in  the  frefh  waters 
of  America  ?  We  know  they  do  not  follow  the  old  ones- 
the  firft  feafon,  becaufe  they  are  found  in  great  fcooles  in 
all  the  American  bays  during  the  fummer,  and  difappear 
in  the  fall,  from  whence  it  may  rationally  be  fuppofed  that 
from  their  natural  propenfity  to  keep  at  a  certain  diftance 
from  the  fun,  the  feafon  leads  them  to  a  different  courfe 
from  the  old  ones,  by  which  they  meet  their  parentage 
about  the  latitude  23°  N.  and  70°  W.  longitude,  and  there 
tack  about  and  follow  the  older  ones  ;  which,  being  larger 
and  fironger  than  the  younger,  come  firft  into  our  harbours, 
but  are  fewer  in  number  than  the  lefler,  probably  from, 
having  fuffered  great  lofs  and  pillage  in  their  long  rout 
from  the  fifh  of  prey,  and  their  greater  enemies  the  fifh- 
ermen  in  the  different  parts  of  the  world. 

A  Table  Jheiving  nearly  about  the  place  of  the  grand  fcoole 
of  herrings^  and  their  mean  dijlance  from  the  fun. 


*  Place  and  Time. 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

.Sun's    Ue- 
clinatjon. 

i  he  Mean 
Diftance. 

I. 

January, 

23 

70 

20  s. 

43 

II. 

February, 

32 

79 

12 

44 

III. 

March, 

36 

IS 

0 

36 

IV. 

April, 

39 

72 

loN. 

29 

V. 

May, 

49 

50 

19 

30 

VI. 

June, 

65 

15 

23 

42 

VII. 

July' 

58 

0 

21 

Zl 

VIII. 

Auguft, 

52 

0 

14 

38 

IX. 

September, 

48 

6 

0 

48 

X. 

Odober, 

ZS 

22 

9 

44 

XL 

November, 

22 

40 

18 

40 

XII. 

December, 

18 

52 

23 

41 

•  Sec  Map  B,  in  Plate  V. 


OF     HERRINGS.  239 

Sonic  Obfervations  and  Reafons  given  for  the  courfe  of  the  Herring;?,  and  the  variatiou  iu 
their  Mean  Dillance  from  the  Sun  in  different  months  of  the  year. 

[See  Map  B,  Plate  V.] 

January.  In  this  month  the  herrings  are  fuppofed  to  be  returning  from  too  warm  a  cli- 
mate and  the  approaching  fun,  from  which  they  retreat  fall. 

Februart.  The  time  of  fpawning  now  drawing  nigh,  the  herrings,  in  this  month  pafs 
through  the  gulph  ftream,  and  fall  on  the  coaft  of  America,  in  order  to  depofit  their  fpawn 
ini'relh  Ihoal  water. 

March.  Now  being  the  beginning  of  the  time  of  fpawning,  the  largefl:  and  flrongcfl  fifli, 
which  perhaps  are  the  oldeft,  rufh  up  into  the  bays,  inlets  and  frefh  water  ftreams, 

April.  In  this  month  the  leffer,  weaker,  and  perhaps  younger  filh,  ruJh  up  even  to  the 
heads  of  fmal!  ftreams,  as  far  as  it  is  poflihle  for  them  to  get,  and  lay  their  fpawn.  Thefe  arc 
twice  as  numerous  as  the  other. 

May.  Having  been  detained  by  the  fpawning  feafon,  they  are  overtaken  by  the  fun,  and 
nearer  to  it  now  than  at  any  other  time;  they  therefore  haften  out  of  the  rivers  in  this  month, 
and  make  great  way  towards  the  North  fea. 

June.  Now  having  by  a  rapid  progrefs  pufhed  Into  a  cnid  climate,  on  a  chilly,  icy  coaft, 
and  the  fun  beginning  to  draw  towards  the  fouth,  they  whirl  round  eaftward. 

July.  The  coldnefs  of  this  fea,  and  the  fun's  declination  towards  the  fouth,  now  inclines 
them  that  way,  in  which  they  fall  on  the  Orkneys,  and  the  fcoole  divides. 

August.  The  grand  fcoole  being  divided,  now  furround  the  whole  ifland  of  Great-Bri- 
tain and  Ireland,  and  are  caught  on  every  fide. 

September.  Having  been  detained  the  laft  month  by  their  obfl:ru(51ion  amongft  the  illands, 
and  being  harrafied  by  the  filhermen,  their  mean  dirtance  is  now  tiie  greateft ;  they  colled; 
into  one  body  and  haften  to  the  foutJiward. 

October.  Being  now  under  great  way,  they  lefTen  their  mcandiftance,  and  by  the  courfe 
which  they  fteer,  which  perhaps  is  incUned  more  weftward  by  the  current  of  the  trade  wind, 
they  pafs  the  Atlantic. 

November.  Being  now  more  in  the  trade,  and  having  approached  a  warmer  climate, 
their  motion  is  fuppofed  to  incline  more  weftward. 

December.  The  fun  now  beginning  to  return,  they  are  fuppofed  to  incline  more  north- 
>vard,  to  the  place  where  we  began ;  where  they  are  fuppofed  to  meet  their  young  fry. 


N°  XXXI, 

Obfervations  on  a  Solar  and  a  Lunar  EcUpfet  communicated 
to  the  Society  by  M.  M.  De  Grauchain,  Major  Ge- 
neral of  the  French  Squadron. 

(  Tranflated from  the  French.) 

GENTLEMEN,  Newport,  5th  December,  1720. 

TH  E  ftudy  of  aftronomy  having  often  occupied  my 
leifure  during  the  peace,  I  could  not  retufe  myfelf 
even  in  the  midft  of  the  preparations  for  war,  an  oppor- 

H  h  2  tunity 


24P 


On     eclipses. 


tunity  which  prefented  of  making  two  important  obrerva- 
tions,  which  1  have  the  honour  of  fending  you. 

Eclipfes  form  the  bafis  of  chronology  ;  this  may  one 
day  ferve  to  fix  the  epocha  of  the  independence  of  Ame- 
rica, one  of  the  moft  interefting  in  the  hiftory  of  man- 
kind. This  is  a  motive  to  dedicate  thefe  obfervalions  to 
you  ;  and  I  pay  this  refpedt  with  the  greateft  pleafure  to 
an  illuftrious  fociety,  whofe  members  know  how  at  the 
fame  time  to  enlighten  their  country  by  their  knowledge 
in  mathematics  and  philofophy,  and  to  ferve  them  fuccefs- 
fully  in  their  councils  and  armies. 

I  am,  &c. 

De  GRAUCHAIN,  Major  General 
of  the  French  Squadron. 


MESSIEURS, 

L'  ETUDE  de  raftronomie  ayant  fouvcnt  occiipe  mon  loifir  pendant  la  paix,  je  n'ai  pa 
mc  refulcr,  memc  an  milieu  de  I'appareil  de  !a  guerre,  a  I'occafion  qui  fut  prefentee  de 
faire  deux  obfcrvations  importnntes  et  j"ai  Thonneur  de  vous  les  adrcfler.  lies  eclipfes  forment 
la  hafe  de  la  chronologie,  et  celles  cy  pourront  un  jourfervir  a  fixirTepoque  de  Tindependance 
de  rAmerique  I'une  des  plus  interreffantes  de  Thil^oire  du  genre  humain.  Cell  un  motif 
pour  vous  en  dedier  les  obfervations,  meflieurs,  et  je  rends  cet  hommage  avec  le  plus  grand 
plaifir  a  une  focicte  illuftre  dont  les  menibres  fcavant  en  meme  temps  eclaires  Icur  patrie  par 
leur  connoifances  dans  les  mathematiqucs  et  dans  la  phifique,  et  la  fervir  utUement  dans  let 
confeilb  et  dans  les  armees. 

Je  fuls  avec  refpetft,  Meffieurs, 

Votre  trcs  humble  et  tres  obeiflant  ferviteur, 

DE  GRAUCHAIN,  Major  general  de  I'efcadre  Francoife. 

A  Newp°"  1'  S  Novembre,  1780. 


An 


OBSERVATION  of  an  ECLIPSE.       241 

An  Obfervation  of  an  Eclipfe  of  the  Sun  on  the  27th  of 
Odober,  1780,  at  Newport  in  the  State  of  Rhode-Ifland. 


Time  by 
Clock 

the 

True  'I 

ime. 

h. 

/ 

It 

h.       ' 

•  ' 

^'hc  time  that  the  eclipfe  was  perceived  to  begin, 

9 

24 

3i 

II       0 

12" 

The  preceding  limb  of  the  fun  at  the  vertical. 

II 

21 

39 

0    57 

27 

The  upper  edge  of  the  fun  at  the  horizontal, 

ir 

54 

57 

42 

The  upper  horn  of  the  moon  at  tiic  horizontal. 

1^ 

3 

57 

51 

The  edge  of  the  moon  at  the  vertical. 

iz 

45 

58 

33 

The  tipper  horn  at  the  vertical,         -         -          - 

23 

7 

58 

SS 

The  lower  horn  at  the  vertical,           -       .         . 

23 

2S 

S9 

23t 
20 

The  lower  horn  at  the  horizontal,         ... 

29 

31 

I       J 

The  lower  limb  of  the  fun  at  the  horizontal, 

31 

J 

6 

51* 

The  preceding  limb  of  the  fun  at  the  vertical, 

II 

37 

12 

I     13 

1 

The  upper  limb  ditto  at  the  horizontal. 

37 

59 

13 

48 

The  upper  horn   ])  at  the  horizontal, 

38 

52 

14 

21 

I'he  limb  ditto  at  the  vertical,         -         - 

not 

obfervetl. 

The  uppef  horn  ditto  at  the  vertical. 

38 

57 

14 

16 

The  lower  horn  ditto  at  the  vertical,          -        -      - 

39 

19 

15 

8 

The  lower  horn  ditto  at  the  horizontal. 

4) 

38 

19 

g 

The  lower  limb  of  the  fun  at  the  horizontal. 

AS 

27 

21 

17 

The  preceding  limb  Q  at  the  vertical. 

II 

47 

8 

I     22 

58 

The  upper  edge  of  ditto  at  the  horizontal, 

48 

17 

24 

7 

The  limb  of  the   J  at  the  vertical,         -         .         - 

49 

0 

24 

50 

The  upper  horn  at  the  vertical,         -         -         . 

49 

5 

24 

SS 

The  upper  horn  at  the  horizontal. 

47 

7 

24 

57 

The  lower  limb  of  Q  at  the  horizontal. 

55 

30 

52 

The  end  of  the  Eclipfe,           .           .          .          - 
The  rate  of  the  clock. 

II 

4 

50 

r    40 

41 

At  Noon.       1 

Oaobcr   :i. 

10 

is 

12,8 

2i4, 

10 

29 

42,0 

2"^, 

10 

27 

52>3 

-7, 

10 

24 

IT, 8 

*  When  the  fun  was  perceived  to  be  indented,  it  was  about  l'  2o"  after  the  eclipfe  began 
therefore  the  true  time  of  beginning  was  at  loh.  58'  52". 

f  Uncertain. 

\  The  fupcrior  limb  is  called  the  inferior,  &c.  as  the  glafs  of  the  quadrant  Inverted  the 
objeiSs. 

The  latitude  of  the  place  of  obfervation   on    Goat- 
Ifland,  41°  30'  20"  N. 


An 


242     OBSERVATIONS  on  TWO  ECLIPSES, 

An  Obfervation  of  the  Ecllpfe  of  the  Moon  on  the  nth 
of  Nov.  1780,  at  Newport  in  the  State  of  Rhodc-Ifland. 


Time  by 

the 

( 

Clock 

True  Time. 

h.       ' 

t! 

h. 

/       // 

The  beginning  of  the  Ecllpfe,        -        -      •      - 

7     40 

5 

10 

24     39 

ImmcrCon  of  Grimaldi  begins,         ... 

7     48 

JO 

10 

33     25 

Ditto,         -         .         -     ends,             ... 

7     51 

25 

10 

36     10 

Immerfion  of  Tycho  begins,            .        .          - 

8       0 

36 

10 

45     i» 

Ditto,         .         -         ends,         .... 

not  obferved. 

The  fliadow  to  Gallileo,         .... 

8       3 

42 

10 

48     18 

Immerfion  of  Copernicus  begins,         ... 

8    ^^ 

54 

II 

12     31 

Ditto,         ...         ends,          -         .         - 

8    3^ 

3S 

II 

17     12 

The  ihadow  in  the  middle  of  Dionyfius, 

8    46 

55 

II 

31     33 

The  Ihadow  of  the  Pointed  Promontary, 

8    SS 

4» 

II 

40     21 

Copernicus  begins  to  appear,         .... 

9     17 

54 

12 

»     34 

Grimaldi         .       .     ditto,         .... 

9    az 

2 

12 

6    41 

Copernicus  wholly  appears,         -         -         -          - 

9    23 

35 

12 

8     15 

Grimaldi         -         ditto,         .... 

9    26 

45 

12 

II     26 

The  Pointed  Promontary  appears,         ... 

9     51 

12 

12 

35     55 

Tycho  wholly  appears,           ... 

10     10 

6 

12 

54     51 

The  end  of  the  Eclipfe,        .... 
The  rate  of  the  Clock, 

10     32 

10 

13 

16    57 

At  Noon. 

November  ir. 

9     i5 

15,7 

12, 

9     14 

30,7 

Remarks  iipon  the  Ohfer'vation  of  the  Ecllpfe  of  the  Sun. 

THE  clock  by  which  the  time  was  obferved,  is  a  pen- 
dulum one  with  a  verge  of  compenfation,  made  by  Mr. 
Parthond,  a  celebrated  clock  maker  at  Paris.  It  was  re- 
gulated many  days  before  and  after  the  obfervation  by 
correfponding  altitudes  taken  with  a  quadrant  of  Ramfden, 
having  a  radius  of  one  Englifh  foot;  it  is  a  very  good  one 
and  well  graduated. 

The  fame  quadrant  ferved  to  obferve  the  time  when 
the  horns  and  limbs  of  the  moon  and  fun  arrived  at  the 

hori- 

Eclairciflements  fur  I'obfervation  de  I'eclipfe  de  Soleil. 

LA  pendule  dont  on  s'eft  fervi  pour  obtenir  I'heure  eft  une  pendule  a  verge  de  compenfati- 
on falte  par  M.  Earthond  celebre  horloger  de  Paris,  clle  a  etc  reglee  plufieuri  jours  avaiit  et 
apres  I'obfervation  par  dcs  hauteurs  correfpondantes  pnfcs  avec  un  quart  de  circle  de  Ramfden 
d'un  pied  angiois  de  rayon  tres  bon,  et  tres  bien  divife. 

Le  fnemc  quart  de  cercle  a  fervi  pour  les  obfervationsdes  paflages  des  comes  et  des  bords  du 
foleil  et  de  la  lunc  au  fil  horlfontal,  et  au  fil  vertical  de  la  lunette  qui  y  eft  adaptee. 

L'ohfervateur  qui  en  embarquant  des  Inftnmients  d'aftrononiic  n'avoit  eu  pour  objet  que  de 
reglcr  dcs  montres  marines,  n'etoit  pas  auffi  bien  pourvu  de  lunettes  que  de  pendules  et  de  quart 

de 


OBSERVATIONS  on  TWO  ECLIPSES.       243 

horizontal  and  vertical  threads  of  the  glafs  which  is  fitted 
to  the  quadrant. 

The  obferver  who  provided  and  fhipped  the  inftruments, 
had  no  other  objedl  m  view  but  to  rectify  the  clock  be- 
longing to  the  fliip,  which  was  the  caufe  that  he  was  not 
lb  well  provided  with  telefcopes  as  with  clocks  and  qua- 
drants, he  was  therefore  obliged  to  make  ufe  of  a  fimple 
achromatic  fea-glafs  of  four  feet  focus,  to  obferve  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  eclipie. 

Yet  he  believes  he  can  anfwer  for  the  end  of  the  eclipfe 
within  about  four  or  five  feconds.  The  inftant  of  time 
which  it  began  is  much  more  uncertain.  The  fun  was 
already  indented  when  it  was  firft  perceived,  but  in  order 
that  he  might  eftimate  grofsly  the  true  time  of  its  begin- 
ning, he  has  eftimated  pretty  nearly  the  diftance  of  the 
horns,  the  moment  when  the  lun's  limb  was  firft  perceiv- 
ed to  be  indented.  By  comparing  the  time  elapfed  after 
the  end  of  the  eclipfe  to  the  inftant  when  the  diftance  of 
the  horns  of  the  moon  were  fenfibly  the  fame,  hence  he 
judged  that  it  fliould  have  been  about  i'  20"  from  the  true 
time  in  which  the  eclipfe  began  until  the  obferved  time.. 

At' 

de  cerclc,  et  11  a  etc  oblige  de  fe  fervlr  pour  Ics  obfervatlons  du  commencement  et  dc  la  fin  de 
recliple  d'une  iimple  lunette  achromatic  de  mer  de  quutre  picds  dc  foyer. 

Cepcndant  on  croit  pouvoir  repondre  de  la  fin  de  reclipie  a  quatre  ou  cinq  fecondes  pres  ;  • 
I'inflant  du  commcn:ement  eft  beaucoup  plus  incertain  ;  le  folLil  etolt  deja  coniiderablenient 
cntanic,  lors  qu'on  s'cn  eft  appercu  :  pour  conclure  au  moins  gronierement  i'inftant  vrai  du- 
commencement  dc  reclipfe,  on  a  eftime  a  peu  pres  quelle  etoit  la  diilance  dcs  cornts  au  mo- 
ment ou  on  s'eft  appercu  que  le  difque  du  loleil  ttoit  entamc,  et  vers  la  fin  de  TecHpfe  on  a 
examine  combien  il  s'eft  ecoule  dc  tenis  depuis  I'inftant  ou  la  diftance  des  cornes  a  eie  lenfible- 
ment  la  memc  jufqu'a  la  fin  de  reclipfe.  C'eft  dc  cette  maniere  que  Tun  a  juge  qu'il  devoit 
s'etre  ecoulc  environ  l'  2<^'  depuis  I'inftant  vrai  du  commencement  de  Teclipfe,  jufqua  celui 
ou  on  s'eft  appercu,  quelle  etoit  commencee. 

On  a  dabord  cru  inutile  de  cbcrcher  a  obferver  la  grandeur  de  I'eclipfe  avec  le  quart  de  cer- 
cle,  a  caufe  de  la  lenteur  du  movement  des  deux  aftres  duns  le  fens  vertical,  cepcnd.mt  a  Ja  re- 
flexion on  a  penfj  que  les  paffages  des  cornes  et  des  bords  du  foleil  et  de  la  lune  au  fil  vertical 
fdulen.ent  fuiiirolent  pour  donner  les  differences  de  hauteur  ct  d'azimuth  des  centres  des  deux 
aftres,  et  par  confequent  leur  diiference  de  latitude  et  de  longitude.  On  les  a  done  obferves 
vers  la  fin  de  I'lclipfe,  et  en  meme  terns  on  a  obferve  les  paffages  au  fil  horifontal,  mais  fans 
cfpcrer  qulls  puftcnt  etre  d'un  grand  fecours  pour  calculer  la  diftance  des  centres. 

Dans  la  premiere  obfervation  le  paflage  de  la  corne  fupcrieure  au  fil  vertical  eft  un  pen  dou- 
teux.  On  penfe  done  qu'il  eft  a  propos  d'cmployer  de  preference  dans  le  calcul  de  cette  obfer-  - 
Tutlon  les  paffages  du  bord  de  la  lune,  et  de  la  corne  inferieure  au  meme  fil  vertical.  De  cette 
maniere  on  connoitra  immediatement  les  lignes  NB  et  C  O  dont  la  premiere  combinee  avec 
les  deux  diametres  L  N  et  S  T  donnera  L  E ;  difference  d'azimuth  des  centres  des  deux  aftres. 
On  obtieiidra  aulli  facilcmcnt  la  difiVrence  appareute  de  hauteur  iS  E  des  memes  centres  en  cai- 

cubnt  - 


244     OBSERVATIONS  on  TWO  ECLIPSES. 

At  firft  it  was  thought  ufelefs  to  endeavour  to  obferve 
the  magnitude  of  the  eclipfe  with  the  quadrant,  becaufe  of 
the  flow  movement  of  the  two  planets  vertically,  yet  upon 
reflection  he  thought  that  the  paflage  of  the  horns  and 
limb  of  the  fun  and  moon  to  the  vertical  thread  only, 
would  be  fufficient  to  give  the  difi^erencies  of  the  altitude 
and  azimuth  of  the  centers  of  the  fun  and  moon,  and  of 
courfe  their  difference  of  latitude  and  longitude.  He 
then  obferved  them  towards  the  end  of  the  eclipfe,  and  at 
the  fame  time  obferved  the  time  of  their  arrival  at  the  ho- 
rizontal thread,  but  without  any  expedation  of  their  be- 
ing of  great  fervice  to  calculate  the  diftance  of  the  cen- 
ters from. 

In  the  firft  obfervation  the  paflage  of  the  upper  horn  to 
the  vertical  thread,  is  a  little  doubtful  ;  at  the  time  it  was 
thought  proper  to  give  the  preference  to  the  paffages  of 
the  limb  and  lower  horn  of  the  moon  to  the  fam.e  vertical 

thread,  in  making  the  calculations  from  this  ob- 
r'"re"i'8    Nervation ;  by  this  means  we  may  find  the  lines 

NB  and  CO,  the  firft  of  which  combined  with  the 
two  diameters  LN  and  ST  will  give  LE,  the  difference 
of  azimuths  and  of  the  centers  of  the  two  planets;  the 
apparent  difference  of  the  altitude  from  the  lame  centers 
may  be  eafily  obtained,  by  calculating  SF  and  CM,  fides 
of  the  right-angled  triangles  CSF  and  CLM,  in  which 
are  known  the  other  two  fides. 

In 

eiilant  S  F  et  C  M  cotes  des  triangles  reflangles  C  S  F  et  CLM  dans  les  quels  on  connoit 
deja  les  deux  autres  cotes. 

Dans  la  feconde  obfervation  on  a  obmis  par  dillraftion,  I'inftant  du  paflage  du  bord  de  la 
lune  all  fil  vertical,  on  fe  fcrvira  done  pour  la  calculcr  des  paffages  des  comes  au  meme  fii  les 
quels  donneront  immediatcment  C  A  et  C  O  d'ou  fouftrayant  S  T,  on  aura  CD  et  C  F  con- 
noiffant  ces  deux  lignes  et  le  demi-diametre  du  fokil  on  calculcra  les  angles  C  S  D,  CSF 
fouftrayant  leur  fonime  de  ioo°,  on  aura  Tangle  C  S  L  partageant  cet  angle  par  la  moitie  on 
aura  Tangle  C  S  L  du  triangle  C  L.  S,  on  connoitra  done  aiiement  S  L  cote  de  cetriangle  et  du 
triangle  S  L.  E  calculant  enfin  ce  dernier  Jriangle  S  L  E  dans  le  quel  on  connoit  deux  angles 
ct  un  cote  on  obtiendraL  E;  difference  d'azumuth  et  3  E  ;  difference  apparente  de  hauteur  des 
centres  des  deux  aftres. 

La  derniere  obfervation  etant  plus  complette  on  pourra  la  calculer  indifTerement  de  Tune  ou 
Tautre  maniere.  On  pourra  meme  faire  ufage  du  paffage  au  fil  horifontal  pour  conclure  la  dif- 
ference de  hauteur  attendu  que  le  movement  des  deux  allres  dans  le  fens  vertical  commcncoit  a 
dcvenir  moins  lent  lorfque  cette  obferv'ation  a  ete  faite. 

Si 


OBSERVATIONS  on  TWO  ECLIPSES.       245 

In  the  fecond  obfervation  we  obtain  the  Inftant  of  the 
arrival  of  the  Hmb  of  the  moon  to  the  vertical  thread, 
which  may  be  made  ufe  of  to  calculate  the  paflage  of 
the  horns  by  the  fame  thread,  by  which  C  A  and  C  O 
are  obtained  :  By  fubtrailing  S  T  from  thcfe,  the  remain- 
der will  be  C  D  and  C  F,  having  thefe  two  lines  and  the 
femi-diameter  of  the  fun,  the  angles  C  S  D,  CSF,  may  be 
had,  and  fubtrailing  their  fum  from  180°  the  remain- 
der will  be  the  angle  CSC,  the  half  of  which  is  the  angle 
CSL;  from  the  triangle  CSL  you  may  readily  obtain 
SL,  a  fide  of  this  triangle,  and  of  the  triangle  SLE  ;  from 
thefe  at  length  this  lall  triangle  SLE,  may  be  calculated, 
in  which  are  had  two  angles  and  one  fide,  from  which 
may  be  obtained  LE  the  difference  of  azimuth,  and  SE 
the  apparent  difference  of  altitude  of  the  centers  of  the 
fun  and  moon. 

My  laft  obfervation  being  more  complete,  might  be 
calculated  either  from  the  one  or  the  other  method,  and 
the  palfage  to  the  horizontal  thread  might  even  be  ufed 
to  determine  the  difference  of  the  altitude  of  the  centers,  as 
the  motion  of  thefe  planets  with  refpeft  to  the  vertical, 
began  to  be  quicker  when  this  obfervation  was  made. 

If  we  are  defirous  to  afcertain  the  time  of  the  paffage 
of  the  upper  horn  of  the  moon  to  the  vertical  thread  in  the 
firft  obfervation,  or  to  know  in  the  fecond  obfervation  the 
time  of  the  paffage  of  the  limb  of  the  moon  by  the  fame 
thread,  they  may  eafily  be  calculated  by  the  help  of  the 
quantities  already  found.  Perhaps  it  might  be  ufeful  to 
make  this  calculation,  to  determine  the  variation  which  ought 
to  have  place  in  the  pofition  of  the  two  points  obferved, 

I  i  relatively 

Si  I'on  vouloit  dans  la  premiere  obfen'ation  verifiier  Tinftant  du  palTao^c  de  la  cornc  fupc-. 
ricure  au  fil  vertical,  ou  connoitre  dans  la  feconje  ohfervaiion  riiiitant  dii  pafra9;e  du  bord 
de  la  lune  au  nicme  fil  on  pourroit  aifemcnt  les  calculer  avec  le  focours  des  tjuantites  deja 
connues.  U  fera  peutetre  meme  utile  de  faire  ce  calcul  pour  fc  mettre  en  etat  de  determiner 
la  variation  qui  a  du  avoir  lieu  dans  la  pofition  des  deux  points  obferver  relativement  I'un  a 
I'iJtre,  pendant  I'efpace  de  terns  ecoule  cntrc  leiu's  pafl'ages  au  mcmc  fil. 

Obferration 


246  TRANSIT     or     VENUS 

relatively  to  each  other  during  the  time  elapfed  between: 
their  paffage  to  the  fame  thread. 

Obfervation  de  I'eclipfe  de  Lune. 

ON  a  fait  ufnge  dans  cette  ohfervation  de  la  meme  quart  de  cercle,  et  de  la  meme  lunette, 
qui  avoient  fervi  pour  I'obfervation  de  I'eclipfe  de  foleil.  La  marche  de  la  pendiUe  etoit  ce- 
pcndant  unpeu  ditl'erente  parte  qu'on  y  avojt  touche.. 


N°  XXXIL 

An  Accoufit  of  the  Tr unfit  of  Venus  over  the  Sun,  June  31^, 
1769,  as  obferved  at  Neivhury-,  in  Maffachufett s ;  by  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Williams,  A.  M.. 

THE  tranfit  of  Venus  over  the  fun,  being  one  of  the 
mofl:  uncommon  and  ufeful  phenomena  in  aftrono- 
my,  I  determined  to  make  as  careful  an  obfervation  of  it 
as  I  could.  Early  in  May  I  received  an  invitation  from 
Tr'ijlram  Dalton,  Efq.  a  gentleman  of  Newbury-Port,  to 
obferve  it  with  him.  He  had  a  feat  at  Newbury,  in  a 
high  elevated  fituation,  very  convenient  for  this  purpofe, 
at  which  we  agreed  to  make  the  obfervation.  The  wea- 
ther for  feveral  days  had  been  dull  and  rainy,  but  clear- 
ing up  on  Tuefday  evening  1  went  early  on  Wednefday 
to  put  every  thing  in  readinefs.  The  regulation  of  our 
clock  being  an  aiticle  of  great  importance,  I  was  very 
careful  to  have  it  thoroughly  examined,  and  well  fitted 
up.  To  adjuft  it  to  apparent  time  we  took  correfponding 
altitudes  of  the  fun,  both  before  and  on  the  day  of  the 
tranfit.  In  thefe  obfervations,  it  was  eafy  to  arrive  to  a 
pretty  great  exa£tnefs;  and  as  they  were  very  numerous, 
the  going  of  the  clock  was  well  afcertained  by  them,  and 
found  to  be  fteady  and  regular.  The  telefcope  we  had 
prepared  was  a  refledlor  made  by  Ndirne,  magnifying 
about  ^^  times;  a  good  inllrument,  but  not  fitted  with  a 

micrometer, 


OVER      THE     SUN.  247 

micrometer,  or  with  vertical  and  horizontal  hairs,  as  we 
could  have  wiflied. 

The  third  of  June  proved  favourable  to  our  wifhes. 
The  air  was  uncommonly  clear,  and  the  fky  ferene. 
About  twenty  minutes  before  the  tranfit,  I  began  to  keep 
mv  eye  fteadily  fixed  on  that  part  of  the  fun's  limb,  on 
which  the  planet  by  calculation  was  to  enter;  an  afliftant 
counting  the  clock  in  the  mean  time,  while  another  Hood 
by  to  write  down  the  obfervations.  Thus  prepared,  we 
waited  with  a  kind  of  agreeable  anxiety  for  the  high  fa- 
tisfadtion  of  feeing  Venus  on  the  fun;  a  fatisfaiflion  I  had 
once  before  enjoyed  in  viewing  the  tranfit  of  1761*,  and 
which  I  knew  muft  end  with  that  of  1769 !  The  firft  im- 
preffion  of  Venus  on  the  fun,  I  expeiled  would  not  ap- 
pear like  a  diftind:  well  defined  black  fpot  coming  on  as 
it  were  in  an  inftant,  but  rather  like  an  ill  defined  mix- 
ture of  limbs.  The  event  was  agreeable  to  the  conjec- 
ture, for  at  2^  30'  14",  apparent  time,  I  imagined  I  faw 
afniall  dijitirbance  on  the  fun's  limb;  but  the  impreffion 
was  then  fo  fmall,  irregular  and  ill  defined,  that  it  was 
not  till  after  feveral  feconds  that  I  was  certain  the  tranfit 
was  begun.  But  the  impreffion  increafing  and  growing 
more  diftindl,  I  fixed  on  the  time  mentioned  above  as  the 
time  of  the  external  contaEl.  To  obfervers  with  tele- 
fcopes  and  eyes  equally  good,  and  fixed  on  that  part  of  the 
fun  on  which  the  planet  entered,  I  conceive  this  firfl:  im- 
preffion might  have  been  obferved  to  an  agreement  of  5 
or  6  feconds.  Though  perhaps  it  might  be  the  contad: 
of  the  atmofphere,  rather  than  of  the  body  of  Venus  with 
the  fun. 

In  about  ten  minutes  after  the  external^  I  began  to  look 
for  the  internal  contad.  From  the  form  in  which  Venus 
appeared,  being  furrounded  with  a  glimmering  light,  not 
very  diftin£tly  defined,  I  concluded  it  would  be  difficult  if 
not  impoffible  to  fix  upon  the  precife  moment  when  her 

I  i  2  limb 

*  At  St.  Johni,  ill  NeivfoundlmJ. 


^rR*--^ 


24S  TRANSIT    OF    VENUS 

limb  would  be  exadlly  coincident  with  that  of  the  fun;  and 
therefore  determined  to  wait  till  there  fliould  appear  a  fmall 
thread  of  light  between  them.  As  the  contadt  draw- 
near,  the  thread  of  light  began  to  form,  and  feemed  to 
dart  on  each  fide  of  the  planet  for  feveral  feconds  without 
being  fixed  or  fettled.  At  2^  48'  44",  with  a  feeming 
uncertainty  of  not  more  than  7"  it  became  clofed  and  fix- 
ed ;  Venus  then  appeared  wholly  within  the  fim,  feparat- 
ed  from  its  limb  by  a  fine  ftream  of  light  flowing  gently 
round  it.  T  his  T  fixed  upon  as  the  internal  contact-,  though 
this  might  alfo  be  the  contad:  not  of  Venus  but  of  her 
atmofphere  with  the  fun.  Not  having  a  micrometer  or 
hairs  fixed  in  the  refledtor,  inftead  of  making  any  further 
obfervations,  we  could  only  enjoy  the  pleafure  of  viewing 
this  curious  phenomenon,  and  fhowing  it  to  a  number  of 
gentlemen  that  had  affembled  on  the  occafion. 

To  determine  the  latitude  of  the  place,  we  took  the 
meridian  altitude  of  the  fun  on  the  day  of  the  tranfit,  by 
tranfmitting  his  rays  from  a  ftyle  10  feet  high,  upoh  a 
large  horizontal  platform.  Prom  this  obfervation  our  la- 
titude came  out  43°  2'  north.  Sufped:ing  the  obfervation 
was  not  fufficiently  accurate,  I  have  fince  carefully  exa- 
mined the  matter,  and  from  feveral  obfervations  which 
nearly  agree,  I  find  it  to  be  but  42°  57'.  With  regard 
to  our  longitude,  the  mean  of  fix  or  feven  obfervations  of 
the  eclipfes  of  Jupiter's  firft  fktellite,  gives  it  about  4''  42' 
30"  weft  from  Greenivich. 

In  the  above  account  of  the  confabs,  the  duration  of 
the  ingrefs,  or  palfage  of  Venus  over  the  fun's  limb,  is 
18'  30";  near  a  minute  longer  than  in  moft  of  the  Ame- 
rican obfervations.  By  theory  it  fhould  be  18'  56",  but 
as  this  muft  have  been  contrafted  at  the  place  of  obferva- 
tion, 15",  by  parallax,  the  apparent  duration  of  the  in- 
grefs, would  be  but  18'  41";  that  is,  11"  longer  than 
it  was  made  by  oblervation.  I  much  doubt  whether  it 
was  poffible  to  difceru  the  planet  fo  foon  as  11"  after  the 

firft 


OVER     THE     SUN.  249 

firft  contad,  when  not  a  fecond  of  its  dianieter  had  enter- 
ed upon  the  lun.  It  is  raoft  probable  that  the  internal 
contacl  was  paft  before  the  thread  of  Hght  appeared  to 
me  to  be  compleated.  It  feems  as  though  fomething  of 
the  fame  kind,  mufi;  alfo  have  been  the  cafe  in  moft  of  the 
European  obfervations;  as  they  make  the  ingrefs  near  a 
minute  longer,  than  it  was  feen  by  moft  of  the  American 
obfervers,  when  by  theory  it  muft  rather  have  been  Ihort- 
er.  But  the  different  appearances  of  Venus,  different 
ideas  of  the  contacts,  with  the  unavoidable  difference  of 
eyes,  telefcopes,  the  ftate  ot  the  atmofphere  and  the  like, 
might  eaiVly  occafion  fuch  differences  in  the  obfervations. 
Though  in  the  lame  circumftances,  it  can  hardly  be 
thought  but  that  the  European  and  the  A7ncrican  obferva- 
tions would  have  more  nearly  agreed. 

An  Account  of  the  Tranfit  of  Mercury  over  the  Sun,  No- 
i^evihcr  C)th,    1 769,  as  ohferi'ed  at  Salem.,  in  Majfachu- 
fetts ;  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Williams,  A.  M. 

THE  tranfits  of  Mercury,  though  they  are  not  of  equal 
ufe  in  allronomy  with  thofe  of  Venus,  are  yet  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  perfeifl  the  elements  of  his  theory,  and  to  de- 
termine the  longitude  of  places  on  the  earth.  I  had  an 
opportunity  to  obferve  one  of  thefe  tranfits,  November  9, 
1769,  in  company  vv^ith  Anclreiv  Ohver,  Efq.  at  Salem. 
Mr.  Oliver  had  a  good  refleiStor,  magnifying  about  fixty 
times.  But  his  clock  not  being  in  fo  good  order  as  was 
to  be  wilhed,  and  not  having  any  inftrument  to  take  al- 
titudes, I  was  obliged  to  have  recourfe  to  the  following 
method  to  determine  the  time.  The  day  before  the  tran- 
fit I  drew  a  meridian  line,  with  \>  hlch  I  examined  the 
going  of  the  town  clock  on  the  day  ot  the  tranfit,  and  on 
the  day  after,  and  found  it  had  kept  time  very  well. 
Compariiig  my  watch  with  the  clock,  the  time  was  point- 
ed out  to  minutes  pretty  exactly.     Taking  the  minutes 

from. 


sjo        TRANSIT    OF    MERCURY. 

from  the  watch,  I  endeavoured  to  count  the  feconds,  which 
by  a  perfon  ufed  to  it  may  be  done  pretty  near  the  truth. 
This  method  of  determining  the  time,  though  fuch  as  an 
aftronomer  would  by  no  means  chufe,  was  the  only  one 
that  I  could  make  ufe  of;  and  from  the  pains  I  took  to  be 
exadt,  I  believe  it  might  be  depended  upon  to  eight  or  ten 
feconds. 

At  xhcfrjl  contaB  I  expected  Mercury  would  have  ap- 
peared as  Venus  had  done,  fomething  irregular,  uneven, 
and  not  very  diftindly  defined.  But  at  a*  54'  40"  appa- 
rent time,  I  was  agreeably  difappointed  by  feeing  the  pla- 
net come  on  as  it  were  in  an  inftant,  in  the  form  of  a 
clear,  regular,  well  defined  black  fpot.  The  internal  con" 
/^(f?  was  equally  inftantaneous;  at  2''  ^G'  o"  the  thread  of 
light  clofed  to  appearance  i%a  moment,  without  a  Teem- 
ing uncertainty  of  a  fecond.  The  fky  being  perfectly 
clear  and  ferene,  nothing  could  be  better  defined  than  the 
limbs  of  Mercury  and  the  fian.  There  was  no  appearance 
of  any  thing  like  an  atmofphere  round  the  planet,  but  all 
the  time  the  fijn  was  vifible,  Mercury  appeared  like  a  fteady 
diftindl  black  fpot,  much  lefs  than  fome  that  were  then 
upon  the  fun.  Not  having  a  micrometer,  it  was  not  in 
our  power  to  make  any  further  obfervations,  either  on  the 
diameter  of  the  fun  or  Mercury,  or  of  the  leaft  diftance 
of  their  limbs. 

An  Obfer'vat'ion  of  an  EcVipfe  of  the  Sun,  November  6thy 
1 77 1,  at  Bradford,  in  Majfachufetts ;  by  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Williams,  A.  M. 

FROM  the  beginning  of  the  year  1769  till  the  end  of 
1 77 1,  there  were  but  two  eclipfes  that  could  be  obferved 
at  Bradford.  One  of  thefe  was  a  total  eclipfe  of  the  moon, 
June  19th,  1769  ;  of  this  I  had  no  obfervation,  being 
prevented  by  an  indifpofition.  The  other  was  an  eclipfe 
of  the  fun,  November  6th,  1771.     The  weather  for  feve- 

ral 


ECLIPSE    Of    THE    SUN.  251 

ral  days  before,  was  fo  cloudy  that  I  attempted  in  vain  tO' 
regulate  my  clock,  though  I  watched  every  favourable 
opportunity.  On  the  day  of  the  eclipfe  I  got  it  pretty 
well  adjufted  by  feveral  correfponding  altitudes  of  the  fun. 
About  i""  p.  M.  the  clouds  gathered  fo  much  round  the 
fun,  that  I  was  apprehenfive  they  would  prevent  any  ob- 
fervation.  But  being  pretty  much  fcattered,  at  i''  t^G  42" 
apparent  time,  I  could  very  plainly  perceive  that  the 
eclipfe  was  juft  begun.  This  I  judged  was  very  near  the 
beginning,  if  not  exadtly  fo,  though  it  was  attended  with 
fome  uncertainty.  In  a  few  minutes  the  fun  was  wholly 
covered  with  the  clouds,  and  remained  thus  till  34-'',  when 
they  began  again  to  fcatter,  and  left  that  part  of  the  hea- 
vens in  which  the  fun  appeared,  perfedlly  clear.  The 
weather  continued  thus  till  the  end  of  the  eclipfe,  which 
by  a  good  obfervation  was  at  j*"  47'  2".  Thefe  obfervati- 
ons  were  made  with  a  refledtor  made  by  Nairne^  magni- 
fying as  near  as  I  could  judge  about  fixty  times  ;  but  as 
to  the  quantity  of  the  eclipfe,  no  obfervation  could  be  made, 
the  fun  being  obfcured  by  the  clouds  the  biggcft  part  of 
the  time. 


N°  XXXIII. 

An  eajy  and  accurate  Method  of  finding  a  true  Meridian 

Line-,  and  thence  the  Variation  of  the  Compajs. 

By  Robert  Patterson. 

Read  Apr.  ^'^  F  the  various  methods  which  aftronomers 
7, 17  •  \^^  employ  for  finding  a  true  meridian  line, 
none  feems  fo  well  adapted,  as  could  be  wiihed,  to  the 
common  ufe  of  furveyors,  in  finding  the  variation  of  the 
Compafs. 

To  find  the  azimuth  of  the  fun  by  a  fingle  obfervation 
of  his  altitude,  befides  a  quadrant  which  is  neceffary  fo 

thi. 


252     An  easy  method  of  finding  the 

this  purpofe,  requires  the  previous  knowledge  either  of  the 
latitude  of  the  place,  or  hour  of  the  day,  at  the  time  of 
obfervation;  neither  of  which  can,  by  the  common  ap- 
paratus of  a  furveyor,  be  found  with  fufficient  accuracy. 

The  fun's  azimuth  may,  it  is  true,  be  found  without 
knowing  either  the  latitude  of  the  place  or  hour  of  the 
day,  by  taking  equal  altitudes  before  and  after  noon;  but 
this  requires  time,  attention  and  inftruments,  which  fur- 
veyors  can  but  feldom  command. 

That  method,  which  is  perhaps  the  moft  exail,  viz. 
meafuring  the  time  between  the  pafTage  of  two  ftars  which 
differ  confiderably,  in  declination  and  but  little  in  right 
afcenfion,  over  the  fame  vertical  circle,  is  ftill  farther  out 
of  the  reach  of  comnion  furveyors. 

The  following  table  of  the  pole  ftar  will,  it  is  prefum- 
ed,  furnifh  a  more  eafy,  and  yet  fufliciently  accurate  me- 
thod of  determining  this  problem;  free  from  all  the 
above  inconveniencies,  and  requiting  no  difficult  calcula- 
tion, nor  any  other  inftrument  than  the  common  theodo- 
lite, or  circumferentor.  For  though  the  latitude  of  the 
place  {hould  not  be  known  within  a  whole  degree,  nor 
the  hour  of  the  night  within  2  or  3  minutes,  this  table, 
by  a  fingle  obfervation  of  the  magnetic  azimuth  or  bearing 
of  the  pole  ftar,  will  generally  give  the  variation  of  the 
needle  true  to  a  fingle  minute  of  a  degree.  Nay  if  the  ob- 
fervation be  made  (as  it  may  be  every  night)  when  the  ftar 
is  near  its  greateft  elongation,  an  error  of  10,  or  even  20 
minutes  in  time  will,  as  is  plain  from  the  table,  produce  lit- 
tle or  no  fenfible  error  in  the  azimuth.  And  as  thefe  obfer- 
vations  may  be  repeated  at  pleafure  during  the  night,  and 
a  mean  of  all  taken,  the  variation  may,  by  this  means,  be 
found  to  any  degree  of  accuracy  that  can  be  defired.  Be- 
fides,  the  needle  is  not  at  this  time  aifciSed  with  any  di- 
v;rnal  variation;  which  in  the  day-time  is  very  uncertain, 
and  frequently  amounts  to  more  than  one  quarter  of  a 
degree. 

The 


VARIATION  OF  THE  COMPASS.       253 

The  beft  inftrnment  for  obferving  the  flar's  magnetic 
azimuth  is  a  theodolite,  furnifhed  with  fpirit-lcvels,  and  a 
fmall  telelcope  with  a  perpendicular  wire.  A  common 
circumferentor  may,  however,  anfwer  the  purpofe.  When 
this  inftrument  is  ufed,  a  fine  thread  or  hair  mud  be 
ftretched  along  from  the  top  of  one  fight  to  that  of  the 
other,  directly  over  the  center  of  the  compafs ;  and  the 
obferver  muft  be  very  careful  to  place  the  figlits  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon  when  he  makes  the  obfervation ; 
for  this  purpofe  a  fmall  pocket  fpirit-level,  in  the  form  of 
a  carpenter's  fquare,  would  be  very  convenient. 

By  the  common  circumferentor  we  cannot,  indeed,  take 
the  bearing  of  an  objedt  with  very  minute  accuracy  ;  for 
though  the  eye  can  very  well  judge  of  the  coincidence  of 
two  lines,  or  of  the  point  of  the  needle  with  any  whole 
degree  on  the  compafs,  yet  the  parts  of  a  degree  cannot 
readily  be  obferved  to  greater  exadlnefs  than  one  third  or 
one  fourth  of  the  whole.  This  inconvenience  may,  how- 
ever, be  eafily  remedied,  and  at  a  very  trilling  expence, 
in  the  following  manner. 

Let  one  of  the  fights,  by  means  of  a  fcrew,  be  made 
movable  at  right  angles  to  the  index  ;  and  on  the  end  of 
the  index,  clofe  to  the  movable  fight,  fet  off,  on  each  fide 
of  the  central  line,  the  tangent  of  three  degrees  to  a  radius 
equal  to  the  whole  length  of  the  index,  or  diftance  between 
the  two  fights.  Let  each  of  thcfe  degrees  be  divided  into 
fix  equal  parts ;  then  will  a  nonius  divifion  on  the  fight, 
where  ten  equal  parts  mufl;  correfpond  with  eleven  on  the 
index,  fubdivide  thefe  parts  into  minutes  of  a  degree. 

It  will  be  unnecelfary  to  make  the  fight  move  in  the 
arch  of  a  circle,  the  difference  between  this  and  the  tan- 
gent, in  fo  fmall  an  arch,  being  quite  imperceptible.  With 
this  finiple  improvement  the  common  circumferentor  will 
take  the  bearing  of  an  objedt  true  to  a  minute,  thus  :  Let 
the  end  of  the  needle  be  made  exadly  to  coincide  with  the 

K  k  nearefl 


£54     A^  EASY  METHOD  of  finding  thi 

nearefi:  whole  degree,  then  move  the  fcrew  till  the  obje£t 
appears  in  the  diredlion  of  the  fights,  and  the  nonius  on 
the  movable  fight  will  point  out  the  odd  minutes. 

Explanation  and  Ufe  of  the  Table. 

The  left  hand  double  column  of  the  table  contains  the 
time  before  the  ftar's  pafTage  over  the  meridian  above  the 
pole,  for  every  twenty  minutes  of  its  whole  diurnal  circuit. 
The  firft  column,  under  each  particular  latitude,  fhews 
the  azimuth  of  the  ftar  at  thefe  times,  refpe£tively,  in  de- 
grees, minutes  and  tenths  of  a  minute.  The  fecond  co- 
lumn fhews  the  difference  of  azimuth  in  every  twenty 
minutes  of  intermediate  time,  in  minutes  and  tenths. 

To  find  the  true  azimuth  of  the  ftar  in  any  latitude,  at 
any  given  time. 

From  the  ftar's  right  afcenfion,  viz.  o*"  49",  increafed  by 
24''  if  neceflary,  fubtra£t  the  right  afcenfion  of  the  fun 
computed  to  the  time  of  the  ftar's  paftage  over  the  meri- 
dian, above  the  pole,  nearly,  the  remainder  will  be  the 
time  of  faid  paftage,  reckoned  from  noon.  From  which, 
increafed  by  24''  if  neceffary,  fubtradl  the  time  of  the  ob- 
fervation,  reckoned  alfo  from  noon,  the  remainder  will 
Ihew  the  time  before  the  ftar  comes  to  the  faid  meridian. 
Look  for  this  time  in  the  left  hand  column  of  the  table, 
oppofite  to  which  in  the  column  of  azimuth,  under  the 
proper  latitude,  you  will  have  the  true  azimuth  of  the  ftar 
at  that  time. 

If  the  time  before  the  ftar  comes  to  the  meridian  be  lefs 
than  12  hours,  its  azimuth  will  be  eafterly ;  but  if  more 
than  12  hours,  its  azimuth  will  be  wefterly. 

If  the  magnetic  azimuth,  and  the  true  azimuth  at  the 
time  of  the  obfervation,  be  both  eafterly  or  both  wefterly, 
their  difference  will  be  the  variation  of  the  needle.  But 
if  one  be  eafterly  and  the  other  wefterly,  their  fum  will 

be 


VARIATION  OF  THE  COMPASS.      255 

he  the  variation.  And  if  the  magnetic  be  to  the  weftward 
of  the  true  azimuth,  the  variation  will  be  wefterly  ;  but  if 
to  the  eaftward,  the  variation  will  be  eafterly. 

If  the  time  before  the  ftar's  paffage  over  the  meridian 
be  fome  intermediate  minute,  or  the  latitude  of  the  place 
fome  intermediate  degree,  not  found  in  the  table,  a  pro- 
portional intermediate  azimuth,  by  means  of  the  differ- 
ences, muft  be  taken. 

The  right  afcenfion  of  the  pole  ftar  annually  increafes 
10  feconds  of  time,  and  its  polar  diftance  decreafes  20  fe- 
conds  of  a  degree,  therefore  to  its  prefent  right  afcenfion 
(in  1785,)  viz.  o""  49",  muft  be  added  one  minute  every 
year;  and  from  its  prefent  polar  diftance  (i  °  50'. 5)  one 
minute  muft  be  fubtraited,  and  a  proportional  part  from 
all  the  numbers  in  the  columns  of  azimuth,  every  three 
years.  The  eff^ed;  of  aberration  and  nutation  may  be 
fafely  neglected;  as  the  error  arifing  from  thefe  caufes 
can  never  amount  to  more  than  half  a  minute  of  a  degree 
in  azimuth. 

In  computing  the  fun's  right  afcenfion  to  the  time  of 
the  ftar's  paftage  over  the  meridian  nearly,  the  following 
little  table  will  be  ufeful,- 


Kk2  TABLE. 


256     An  easy  method  of  finding  the 
TABLE. 


Time, 

Star  paffes   Meridian 

nearly  at 

April            2 

Noon 

19 

II  A.  M. 

May             5 

10 

20 

9 

June             4 

8 

18 

7 

July          3 

6 

17 

5 

Auguft         2 

4 

17 

3 

September    3 

2 

19 

I 

Oaober        6 

Midnight 

22 

II  P.  M. 

November    6 

10 

21 

9 

December    5 

8 

19 

7 

January        i 

6 

^ii 

5 

29 

4 

February    i 3 

3 

March           I 

2 

17 

1 

Ex  A  MPLE  I. 

Suppofe  on  the  12th  of  September  17S5,  at  8  o'clock 
in  the  evening,  in  the  latitude  of  40°  N.  the  magnetic 
azimuth  of  the  pole-ftar  had  been  obferved  to  be  0°  38' 
eafterly  ;  required  the  variation  of  the  needle  at  the  time 
and  place  of  obfervation. 

Star's 


VARIATION  OF  THE  COMPASS. 


'^Sl 


II 

25 

13 

8 

24 
0 

H.         M. 

Star's  R.  A.  increafed  by  24  hours,  -      24     49 

Sun's  R.  A.  computed  to  i''  A.  m.   (taken 

from  the  nautical  almanac,  or  any  other 

table  of  the  fun's  R.  A.)  fubtrad 

True  time  of  ftar's  paflage  over  meridian, 

reckoned  from  noon, 
Hour  of  the  night  fubtradt. 

Time  before  ftar's  paflage,  -  -  5      24 

Which  correfponds  to  true  azimuth,  2°  23'  E. 
Magnetic  azimuth,  -         -  o   38  E. 

Variation  of  the  needle,  -  i    45  W. 

Example  IT. 

In  the  latitude  of  about  32°  north,  on  the  4th  of  July 
1789,  at  48  minutes  after  i  d  o'clock  at  night,  iuppofe  the 
magnetic  azimuth  of  the  pole  flar,  to  be  2°  40'  eaft;  re- 
quired the  variation  of  the  needle. 

Star's  R.  A.   +  24%  -  _         _ 

Sun's  R.  A.-  -         -  -  _ 

Time  of  ftar's  pafling  meridian. 

Time  of  obfervation,  _  _  _ 

Time  before  ftar  comes  to  meridian. 

Which  correfponds  to  true  azimuth,  2°    4'  E. 
Magnetic  azimuth,  -         -  2    40  E. 

Variation,  -  -  o    38  E. 


Ex- 


H. 

M. 

24 

49 

6 

54 

17 

55 

10 

48 

258     An  easy  method  of  finding  tre 

Example  III. 

Latitude  of  the  place  42  °  north,  tune  of  obfervation,, 
January  17th  1785,  at  2"  40™  A.  M.  Magnetic  azi- 
muth, I  °  5'  eafterly. 

Star's  R.  A.  +  24*  _         _ -_ 

Sun's  R.  A.  -  -         -         _ 

Time  of  ftar's  paffing  the  meridian, 

Time  of  obfervation  reckoned  from  noon, 

Time  before  ftar  comes  to  meridian,         -      14       8 

Correfponding  to  true  azimuth,       1°  16'  W. 
Magnetic  azimuth,         -         -        i     5  E. 

Variation,         „         -  - 


H. 

M. 

24 

49 

20 

I 

4 

48 

24 

28 

48 

H 

40 

2  21  E. 


A  Table 


VARIATION  OF  THE  COMPASS. 


259 


A  Table  of  the  Azimuth  of  the  Pole-ftar  for  every  20 
Minutes  of  its  diurnal  Motion  round  the  Pole. 


■  Latitude  30' 

:Latitude35^ 

Latitude  40° 

Latitude  45° 

Latitude  30^ 

Latitude.sj  i 

iTinic  before  thi 
1  ilar  comes  to 
1  the  meridian  a- 
1  bove  the  pole. 

i5 

it; 

5 

0^ 

3 

m    3 

2  £ 

Q 

5 

'i-5 

5 

H.  M. 

0      c 

20 

40 

H.   M. 
24       c 
23     4C 

2C 

0     0.0 

"•3 
22.6 

1 

"■3 
"■3 
ri.i 

10.7 
10.4 

lo.o 

9-5 
3.9 

8.2 

7.6 
6.7 

5-<) 
5.0 
41 

3-1 

2.2 

1-3 

0        / 

0  0.0 

1  I2.0 
1      24.0 

1 
12.C 

12.0 

11.; 
II..'; 

II.O 

10.6 

lO.O 

9.4 

8.8 

7.8 
7-1 
6-3 

5-2 
4-3 

3-3 

2.', 
1.4 

3         / 
3      0.0 
12.9 

25-7 

12.9 
12.8 

12.6 

12-3 

II.9 

"■3 

10.9 

lO.O 

9-3 
8.J 
7-5 
6.7 

S-S 
4-5 

3-6' 

2.4 
1-3 

0      / 

0     0.0 
14. 1 
28.0 

t 

14.1 
13-9 
13-7 

13-4 
12.9 

12.3 

II. 8 
10.9 

10. 1 

9.1 

8.2 

7.2 
6.0 
4-9 
3-7 

2.. 
I..- 

3      0.0 
15.6 
31.0 

15.6 

15-4 

0     1 

0     0.0 
17.6 
35-0 

17.6 

17-4 

17.2 

16.7 
16.0 

15-4 

14-5 
^3-S 

12-5 

ri.2 

lO.O 

8.7 

7-3 
6.6 

3-6 

3-0 
•1-4 

I       0 
20 
40 

C 
22      4C 

2C 

33-7 
44.4 
54-8 

35-7 
47-2 
58.2 

38.3 
50.6 

I     2-5 

41-7 

J.T-i 

I     8.0 

46.2 
I        I.O 

15-3 

IV. 
14.8 
14-3 
X3.6 

12.9 
12.0 

II. a 

lO.O 

9.0 

7-7 
6.6 
5-4 
4.0 

2.6 

1.4 

52.2 

I     8.9 

24.9 

i      0 
20 
40 

C 

21     4C 

20 

r     4.8 

14-3 

23.2 

I     8.8 
18.8 
28.2 

13-8 
24.7 
34-7 

20.3 
32.1 
43-0 

28.9 
41.8 
53-» 

i     40-3 

1  J4.8 

2  8.3 

3       0 

ao 
40 

G 

10     4C 

2C 

31-4 

3y-o 

45-7 

37-0 
44-8 
51.9 

44.0 

2      0.0 

J3-I 

2      2.2 
10.4 

2     5-0 
i.?.o 
24.0 

31-7 
38.3 

43-7 

20.8 
32.0 
42.0 

4      0 
20 
40 

C 
19      40 

2C 

51.6 
56.6 

2      0.7 

58.2 
1     3-4 

,       '-7 

6.7 
12.2 
16.: 

17.6 
23.6 
28..C 

50.7 

58.0 

3     4-6 

S      0 

20 
40 

0 
18      40 

ic 

to 

7.3 

j     11. 0 
13-3 

1     14-7 

20.  .3 
22.7 
24.C 

32.2 

34-- 

36-1 

47-7 
50.3 
iI-7 

8.2 

II. 2 
12.6 

6      0 

2C 
4C 

0 

17    40 

20 

7.6 
6.9 

5-2 

•7 

1-7 

2-5 

3-5 
4-J 

5-1 
6.2 
6.8 

7-5 
8.2 
8.8 

9-3 

9-7 

10.2 

10.5 

10.7 
10.8 
10.9 

j     14.8 
1     14-2 
i     12.3 

.6 
1.9 

2.8 

3.8 
4.6. 

5-6 
6.4 

7.3 

7-9 
8.7 
9.2 

9.8 

TO.,-i 
10.7 

II.C 

II..- 
ri.i 
1 1-5 

24.2 
21.3 

•9 

2.0 

3-0 
4.1: 

J.O: 

6.0* 

6.9' 
7.6 

9.4 
9.9 

10.4 

II.O 
II. 4 

II. 7 

12.0 
12.2 
12.2 

36.^ 

33-^ 

l.C 

2,3 

3-3 

4-.'; 
5-i 
(,.;. 

7-5 
8.5 

9.2 

9-9! 
0.8; 

:i.3 

ti.8' 

^i-3 

'3-7 

12.9 
I3-I 

13.2, 

31.8 
50.7 
48.2 

I.I 

2-5 

3-9 

4.9 
6.2 

7-1 

8.4 
9.2 

10.2 

II.O 

11.7 
12.4 
12.9 

13-4  1 
14-0 

14-2 

14-3 
14.4 

1      12.5  ' 

II.O    '-S 
8.i|  ^-9 

7       0 

2C 
4C 

0 

r6    40 

2C 

2-7 
I  59-J 

54-7 

9-5 
5-7 
i.i 

18.3 
14-2 

9.2 

29.7 
23.2 
19-7 

44-3 
39-4 
3.3-2 

.3-8 
2  58.2 

iI-2 

4- J 

5-6 

7.0 

8.2 

9-3 

10.4 

II-5 

12. 1 

13-2 
13.8 

14-5 
14.9 

15.6 

15-7 
15-9 
16.1 

8      c 

20 
4C 

c 
15    40 

2C 

49.6 
43-1 
36.^ 

I  55-5 
49.1 
41.8 

3-2 

I  5<>-i 

48.7 

13-2 

5-7 
I  57-2 

26.1 

17-7 
8.5 

43-0 
33-7 
23-3 

9      f 

2C 

40 

0 
14       40 

2C 

29.1 

20.  (; 

12. 1 

33-9 
25.2 
16.0 

40.2 
3c.  8 
20.9 

48.C 
38.1 

i7-.- 

=  58.3 
47-3 
3.?.6 

1 1.8 

I  59-7 

46. .V 

10         < 

2(_ 

4C 

'3     4ci 

2C' 

2.' 

^  .?3-'' 
42. V 

6.2 

->  55-9 
45-2 

34-2 
22.9 
"•5 

0.0 

10.5 

5  59-5 
48.1 

16.. 

4-; 

0  51.9 

23.2 

10.3 

0  36.9 

32.7 

18.2 

3-3 

11  c 

2C 
4r 

12  C 

C 

12       40 

20'; 

0| 

32-i 

21.; 

10.9 

0.0 

36.4 

24.4 

12.2 

0.0 

39-^ 
26.3 

I3-i 
0.0 

42.9 

28.7 

14.4 

0.0 

0  47-7 
32.0 
16.I 
0.0 

[       260      ] 


N°  XXXIV. 

Agronomical  Ohfervations,  communicated  hy  Mr.  R  i  t- 

TENHOUSE. 

By  Mr.  'James  Six.,  of  Canterbury. 

Geocentric  place  of  the  New  Planet. 
April  ift,  1782,  29°     5'  30"  in  n    lat.  13' N. 

October  15th,  7    21     18  gs  nearly  ftationary. 

December  26th,  5       2    30  in  oppofition. 

March  loth,  1783,         3     15      o  ftationary. 
Odlober  15th,  11     ^^    10  ftationary. 

December  30th,  9    47    25  in  oppofition. 

March  14th,  1784,        7    46      o  ftationary. 

Lat.  23  N. 

By  D.  Rittenhoufe^  at  Philadelphia. 

Tranfit  of  Mercury  over  the  fun's  difts,  Nov.  12th,  17S2. 

Firft  external  contadl,     9"  34'  50"  morn.  ^ 
Internal,  uncertain,  40      o  \ 

Second  internal,  10  51    30  j^McanTimc. 

Laft  contact,  57    35  -^ 

Greateft  diftance  of  5  center  from  fun's  limb,  31". 

1784,  On  Meridian. 
Jan.  2yth.      v  Gemino  9"  49'  20" 

'  Gem.  9    54  45 

New  Planet  10       i    48 

^  Gem.  10     15    19 

Feb.  1 2th.     y  Gem.  8"  54^" 

New  Planet,      9      4   54 
I,  Gem.  9    20    18 


ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS.        261 


•  7?;. 

On 

Meridian. 

January  26th. 

^  Gemino 

I  oh 

H' 

14' 

New  Planet 

10 

3' 

22 

i  Gem. 
^  Gem. 

ID 

40 

7 

February  4th. 

9 

48 

48 

New  Planet 

9 

54 

32 

S  Gem. 

10 

4 

41 

r^  Gemino       19°    5'    7' 

Feb.  1 2th.  Obfe 

rved 

zenith  difta: 

nee, 

<  New  Planet    16  40  45 

OGcm.            17    35    33 

Febr.   i7tli. 

t  Gem. 

8h 

57' 

42" 

New  Planet 

9 

I 

46 

zenith  diftance,     16°  40'  42'' 

S-Gem. 

9 

13 

35 

ditto,               17     3S    40 

Febr.   27th. 

?Gem. 

8 

18 

34 

New  Planet 

S 

2  I 

32 

0  Gem. 

8 

34 

27 

March  1 2th. 

CGem. 

7 

^7 

H 

New  Planet 

7 

29 

414 

J  Gem. 

7 

43 

6i 

March  15  th. 

Sirius             t 

6 

59 

51 

^  Gemino 

7 

>S 

30 

New  Planet 

7 

17 

54 

2-  Gem. 

7 

31 

23 

M.irch  17th. 

Sirius 

6 

51 

58 

^  Gem. 

7 

7 

37 

New  Planet 

7 

y 

59 

March  2  2d. 

Sirius 

6 

3* 

18 

^Gem. 

6 

47 

56 

New  Planet 

6 

50 

19 

March  27th. 

Sirius 

6 

12 

38 

^Gem. 

6 

28 

16 

New  Planet 

6 

30 

45 

aSth. 

^Gem. 

6 

24 

19 

New  Planet 

6 

26 

Soi 

W 

[icrometer  mea-     Difference  I'li 

178'^. 

fure  of  Z.  D.           miii.  &.  feco. 

January  25th. 

?■  Gemino 

loh 

45' 

1" 

New  Planet 

10 

5<i 

48 

r.       d. 

'     35 

2(5th. 

S'Gem. 

10 

41 

5 

+ 

New  Planet 

10 

52 

44 
Diffen 

snce. 

4     374 

6     24i      =     20'  59" 

L  1 


262        ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


1786, 

January  27th, 


J^Gcmino 
New  Planet 


Micrometer  nica-      Difference  in 
Aire  of  Z.  D.  min.  &  feco. 

On  Meridian.  •      r.       d. 

loh     37'        8"         +       1    34. 
10     48      37  —     4  34 


31ft. 

J- Gem. 
New  Planet 

10 

iO 

2r 

32 

24 
13 

Diff,     6  29 

February  ift. 

S-Gem. 
Pluto 

10 
10 

17 

28 

1} 

DifF.    7     0 

ad. 

^  Gem. 
?  Gem. 
New  Planet 

9 

JO 

10 

16 

13 

24 

23i 

33 

2 

8  40 
16     0 

DifF.    7     8 

3d- 

J  Gem. 
New  Planet 

~ 

- 

- 

S   39 

16     34 

Dlff..7  12*. 

6th. 

J  Gem. 
New  Planet 

9 
10 

57 
7 

SO 
43 

8  39J 
16   17 

Diff.    7  251 

10th. 

fi,  Gem. 
I  Gem. 
New  Planet 

J^Gem. 
New  Planet 

9 
9 

8 
9 

42 
SI 

58 
6 

7 
24 

52 
46 

13     2lf 

16  29i 

2lft. 

Diff,    3     8 

March  loth. 

i  Gem. 
New  Planet 

/x  Gem. 

7 
7 

6 

52 

SO 

2 
3" 

55 

12     5i 
21   21 

nth. 

Diff.    9  151 

2-  Gem. 

New  Planet 

7 
7 

43 
54 

5 

31 

12     5 

21     20f 

Diff.    9  155 

lith. 

J- Gem. 
New  Planet 

7 
7 

4+ 

SO 

9 
32 

13  17^ 
22   34i 

Diff. 


J8tb. 


fi  Gem. 
?■  Gem. 

New  Planet 


23     23 
20     33 


7     26    43^ 


9  17 
13  16^ 

Diff.    9  I^i 


22    33 


*3    S 


=      23  24 


=      24    7 


10  13 


=      30     5 


=      30    4 


30    9 


-=      30  16 


ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATIONS.        263 


1786, 

^arch  19th. 

S^Gem. 
New  Planet 

On 

7 

7 

Meridian. 
'6     37i 

22      474 

M 

i 

DifF. 

icrometer  mea- 
"ure  of  Z.  D. 
r.     d. 

14    36 

24      8i 

Difference  in 
min.  &  feco. 

9    205 

=       30  H 

aift. 

S-Gem. 
New  Planet 

7 
7 

8 
14 

46 
53 

Diff. 

5     '\ 

14  37i 

9   19+ 

=       30   18 

23J. 

J  Gem. 
New  Planet 

7 
7 

0 

7 

54^ 

Diff. 

3   28^ 
12  47 

9   i84 

=      30  IS 

24th. 

^Gem. 
New  Planet 

S-Gem. 
New  Planet 

(5 

7 

<; 

6 

56 
3 

S3 

59 

3 
16 

Diff. 

8   i4i 
17   34 

25th. 

9  19^ 

=       30   iS 

27th. 

J  Gem. 
New  Planet 

X^Gem. 
New  Planet 

6 
6 

45 
51 

21 
27 

II 

18 

53 

Diff." 

8  13J 

17   31 

April   2d. 

9  '7i 

=       30   10 

N.  B.   In  thefe  obfervations  the  declination  of  the  New  Planet  was  con- 
ilantly  greater  than  that  of  S^Geminorum,  but  lefs  than  fi. 


N°  XXXV. 

A  Letter  from  Mr.  Otto,  to  Dr.  Franklin,  zvith  a 
Memoir  on  the  Difcovery  of  America. 

New- York,  ift  April,  1786. 
SIR, 

Read  Apr.      A    LMOST  all  tlic  authors  who  have  written 
7. 1/    •     /-%     upon  the  difcovery  of  America,  make  men- 


.A' 

tion  of  fome  information  which  Chriftopher  Columbus 
procured  at  Madeira,  upon  the  exiftence  of  a  weftern  con- 
tinent; but  they  do  not  tell  us,  pofitively,  how  far  this  in- 

L  1  2  formation 


264  M    E   M    O    I   R      ON      THE 

formation  aflifted  him,  or  from  what  iburce  he  derived  it. 
I  have  always  been  curious  to  clear  up  this  interefting 
part  of  hiftory ;  and  in  running  over  many  ancient  hifiori- 
ans,  as  well  German  as  Spanifh,  I  have  found  iome  cir- 
cumftances,  which  have  appeared  to  me  to  eftablifh,  in  the 
cleareft  manner,  a  difcovery  anterior  to  that  of  Columbus. 
I  have  the  honor  to  fend  you  the  refult  of  my  cncjuiries; 
and  if  you  think  this  piece  worthy  of  being  fubmitted  to 
the  conlideration  of  the  Philoibphical  Society,  I  beg  you 
to  prefent  it  to  them  as  a  mark  of  my  homage,  and  of  the 
defire  which  1  have  of  being  of  fome  fervice. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  with  refpedful  attachment, 

Your  excellency's  very  humble  and 

Moft  obedient  fervant, 

OTTO. 

His  excellency  Dr.  Franklin. 


A  New-York,  le  1  Avril,  1786. 
MONSIEUR, 

PRESQUE  tons  les  auteurs  qui  ont  ccrit  fur  la  decouvertc  de  TAmcrique,  font  mention  de 
quelques  rcnfcignemtns  que  Chrjftophe  Colonib  sVft  procures  dans  Tific  de  Madere  fur 
rexiftencc  d'un  continent  occidental,  niais  ils  ne  nous  difent  pas  politivenient  jufqu'  a  quel  point 
ces  relations  ont  pu  lui  etre  utiles,  ou  quelle  en  a  ete  la  Iburce.  J'ai  tbujours  cte  curieux  de 
dehrouiller  cette  partie  intcrelfante  de  I'hiiloire  ;  et  en  parcourant  plufieurs  anciens  hiftoriens, 
tant  Allcmans  qu'Efpagnols,  j'ai  trouve  quelques  details  qui  m'ont  paru  ttablir  d'une  maniere 
indubitable  luie  deeouverte  anterieure  a  cclle  de  Colomb.  J'ai  I'bonneur  de  vous  en  adrefl'er 
le  refume,  et  fi  vous  croycs  que  cette  piece  foit  digne  d'etre  mife  fous  les  yeux  dc  la  fociete 
philofopbique,  je  vous  fupplie  de  la  lui  prefenter  coname  une  marque  de  mon  hommage  et  du 
delir  que  j'ai  de  lui  etre  de  quclque  utilite. 

J'ai  I'bonneur  d'etre  avec  un  rcfpeiSlueux  attachemcnt. 

Monsieur, 

De  votre  Excellence, 

Le  tres  humble  et  ties  obeiffant  ferviteur, 

OTTO. 
S.  E.  M.  FRANKLIN. 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  265 

Memoir  7ipon  the  Difco'uery  of  America. 

IT  has  always  been  looked  on  as  a  piece  of  injuftice, 
not  to  have  given  the  name  of  Columbus  to  that  valu- 
able part  of  the  world  which  he  difcovered;  and  that 
Amcricanus  Vefpucius,  who  did  nothing  but  follow  his 
footfteps,  has  had  the  good  fortune  of  having  his  name 
handed  down  to  the  moft  diftant  pofterity,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  his  predcceflbr.  What  then  will  be  faid,  if  it  iliall 
be  proved,  that  neither  of  thofe  celebrated  navigators 
were  the  firfl  difcoverers  of  this  immenfe  countrv,  and 
that  this  honor  belongs  to  a  man  fcarcely  known  in  the 
republic  of  letters.  This,  however,  is  what  I  fliall  at- 
tempt in  the  following  paper;  and  if  the  obfcurity  of  co- 
temporary  writers  and  the  dillance  of  time,  do  not  afford 
arguments  fufficient  tor  an  abfolute  demonflration,  there 
will  however  be  enough  to  call  in  queftion  the  pretenfions 
of  Chrillopher  Columbus. 

1  fliall  not  here  enter  into  an  examination  of  the  reve- 
ries of  fome  hifiorians,on  the  voyages  of  the  Carthagini- 
ans, the  Atlantis  of  Plato,  the  bold  expedition  of  Madoc 
prnice  of  Wales  and  fon  of  Owen  Guinnedd,  of  which 
Hackluyt  has  preferved  fome  account,  nor  on  the  voyages 
of  Bacchus,  or  the  land  Ophir  of  Solomon.  Conjectures 
of  this  kind,  whether  true  or  falfe,  cannot  leflen  the  glory 
of  Columbus,  were  there  not  proof  that  he  received,  juft 

before 

MEMOIRE  SUR  LA  DECOUVERTE  DE  1/AMERIQUE.     Mars  1786. 

ON  a  rcgardc  jufqu'ici  comme  une  injuftice  qu'on  n'ait  point  doniie  le  nom  de  Chriftophe 
Colon.l)  i  la  belle  panic  du  nionde  qu'il  a  decouverte,  et  qu'Araeric  Vefpuce,  qui  n'a 
fait  que  marcher  fur  fes  traces,  ait  eu  le  bonheur  de  fairc  paffer  fon  fouvenir  a  la  pofteritc'  la 
plus  cloignce  au  prejudice  de  fon  predeceiTeur.  Que  dircit  'on  s'il  etoit  prouve  qu'aucun  de 
ces  grands  navlj^ateurs  n'a  le  nierite  de  la  premiere  decouverte  de  ce  pays  immenfe,  et  que 
riionneur  en  eft  du  .1  un  homme  ]irefqu'inconnu  dans  la  rcpubliquc  deslet'tres  ?  Cell  ce  que  jc 
me  prop.jfe  de  faire  dans  ce  memoire,  et  fi  I'obfcurite  dcs  c'crivains  contemporains  et  I'cloio-ne-- 
ment  ue-,  epoques  ne  me  permettent  pas  de  poufTermesargumens  jufqua  I'evidence,  ilsfufliront 
au  moins  pour  etabllr  des  doutes  fondcs  fur  la  pretendue  decouverte  de  Chriftophe  Colomb. 

Nous  n'examinerons  point  ici  les  rcves  de  quelques  hiftoricns  fur  la  navigation  des  Cartha- 
pinois.  fur  rAi:!;:ntide  de  Platen,  fur  les  expeditions  hardies  de  Madox,  prince  de  Ga  Ls,  et 
Ills  d'Owcn  Cuyret,  dont  Hakluit  notis  a  confcrve  les  details,  ni  fur  les  voyages  dc  Bachus  ni 
fur  rOphir  de  balomon ;  ccs  cor.joflures  vraics  on  faufles  ne  iauroieut  diniinnuer  la  ginric  de 

Chriftophe 


265  M  E  M  O  I  R    ON    THE 

before  his  expedition,  the  charts  and  journal  of  a  learned 
aftronomer  who  had  been  in  America. 

Garcilaflb  de  la  Vega,  born  at  Cufco  in  Peru,  has  given 
us  an  hiftory  of  his  country,  in  which,  to  take  from  Co- 
lumbus the  merit  of  the  difcovery  of  America,  and  to 
give  the  honor  of  it  to  the  Spaniards,  he  aflures  us,  that 
this  navigator  had  been  informed  of  the  exiftence  of  an- 
other continent  by  Alonzo  Sanchez  de  Huelva,  who  in  his 
voyage  to  the  Canaries  had  been  driven  by  a  gale  of  wind 
to  the  Antilles;  but  that  his  chief  information  was  procur- 
ed from  a  celebrated  geographer  of  the  name  of  Martin 
Behenira.  Garcilaflb  fays  nothing  more  of  this  Behenira; 
and  fince  we  know  of  no  Spanifh  geographer  of  this  name, 
Garcilaflb  has  been  fufpe<fl:ed  of  making  a  facrifice  of  truth 
to  the  defire  of  wrefl:ing  from  a  Genoefe  the  glory  of  dif- 
covering  the  new  world. 

On  looking  over,  with  attention,  a  lifl;  of  all  the  learn- 
ed men  of  the  fifteenth  century,  I  find  the  name  of  Martin 
Behem,  a  famous  geographer  and  navigator.  The  chrifti- 
an  name  is  the  fame  with  that  mentioned  by  Garcilaflb, 
and  I  find  that  the  fyllables  ira,  added  to  his  name,  are 
owing  to  a  particular  circumfl:ance;  namely,  the  honor 
conferred  on  him  by  John  II.  king  of  Portugal.  It  is  then 
pofllble,  that  this  Martin  Behem  is  the  fame  perfon  as 
Martin  Behenira  mentioned  by  Garcilaflb;  but  this  vague 
conjedure  will  receive  the  ft^amp  of  truth  by  the  follow- 
ing detail.  The 

Chriftophe  Colomb,  s'il  n'etoit  prouve,  que,  peu  de  terns  avant  fon  eTtpcHition,  un  aftronome 
favant  avoit  etc  en  Amerique,  et  lui  avoit  communique  fes  cartes  et  fes  joumanx. 

Garcilaffo  de  la  Ve^a,  ne  a  Cuico  en  Perou,  nous  a  donne  une  hilloire  de  fa  patrie  dans  la- 
quelle,  pour  oter  a  Colomb  le  merite  de  la  decouverte  de  I'Amerique,  ct  pour  en  faire  honnenr 
aux  Efpagnols,  il  alTure  que  ce  navigateur  avoit  cte  inftruit  de  I'exiftence  d'un  autre  continent 
par  Alonzo  Sanchez  de  Huelva,  qui  faifant  route  pour  les  Canaries  avoit  ete  pouffe  aux  An- 
tilles par  un  coup  de  vent ;  mais  qu'H  ai'oit  fur  tout  t:rt  grand  parti  del  injonnatioris  d\n  ceUbre  geo~ 
iraphe  iw7t:ni:  Martin  Bihritira.  Garcilaflb  ne  nous  dit  rien  de  plus  fur  ce  Behenira^  et  comme  oil 
ne  connoit  point  de  geographe  Efpagnol  de  ce  nom,  on  a  foup<;onne  de  la  Vega  davoir  facri- 
fie  la  verite  au  defir  de  ne  pas  laifTer  a  un  Gcnois  la  gloire  d'avoir  decouvert  le  nouveau  monde. 

En  parcourant  avec  attention  la  lifte  de  tous  les  favans  du  XV  iiecle,  je  trouve  le  nom  de 
Martin  Behem^  grand  geographe  et  navigatcur,  je  trouve  que  le  nom  dc  batenie  el^  conforme  a 
celui  qui  eft  cite  par  Garcilaflb,  que  les  fyllabes  ira  ajoutecs  a  fon  nom  doivent  etre  dues  a  une 
circonftance  particulicre,  et  cette  circonftance  je  la  trouve  dans  la  confiance  dont  il  a  ete  hon- 
nore  par  Jean  II  roi  dc  Portugal.  11  eft  done  pollible  que  ce  Martin  i>\wwfoit  le  meme  hom- 
nie  que  ce  Martin  Behin^rc  mentionne  par  Garcilaflb;  mais  cette  conjeflure  vague  axira  tous 
jet  caracleres  de  rcviJence  par  les  details  fuivans. 

I.'hifloirc 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  267 

The  literary  hiftory  of  Germany  gives  an  account  of 
a  Martin  Behem,  Beheim,  or  Behin,  who  was  born  at  Nur- 
enburgh,  an  imperial  city  of  the  circle  of  Franconia,  of  a 
noble  family,  iome  branches  of  which  are  yet  extant. 
He  was  much  addidled  to  the  ftudy  of  geography,  agro- 
nomy and  navigation,  from  his  infancy.  At  a  more  ma- 
ture age  he  often  thought  on  the  poflibility  of  the  exi- 
ftance  of  the  Antipodes  and  of  a  weftern  continent.  Fil- 
led with  this  great  idea,  he  paid  a  vifit  in  1459  to  IfabelJa 
daughter  of  John  the  I.  king  of  Portugal  and  regent  of 
the  duchy  of  Burgundy  and  Flanders.  Having  informed 
her  of  his  defigns,  he  procured  a  veffel,  in  which  he  made 
the  difcovery  of  the  iiland  of  Fayal  in  1460.  He  there 
eftablifhed  a  colony  of  Flemings,  whofe  defcendants  yet 
exift  in  the  Azores;  which  were,  for  fome  time  called  the 
Flemifh  iflands.  This  circumftance  is  proved,  not  only 
by  the  writings  of  cotemporary  authors,  but  alfo  by  the 
manufcripts  preferved  in  the  records  of  Nurenburg,  from 
which  the  following  is  copied.  "  Martin  Behem  tender- 
"  ed  his  fervices  to  the  daughter  of  John  king  of  Lufita- 
*'  nia,  who  reigned  after  the  death  of  Philip  of  Burgun- 
"  dy  iirnamed  the  Good,  and  from  her  procured  a  fhip, 
*'  by  means  of  which,  having  failed  beyond  all  the  then 
"  known  limits  of  the  weftern  ocean,  he  was  the  firft  vi^ho, 
"  in  the  memory  of  man,  difcovered  the  iiland  of  Fayal, 

"  abound- - 

L'hifloirc  litteraire  de  I'AUemagne  nous  apjircnd  que  ATtirlhi  Brhem,  Beheim  ou  SJjin  eft  ne 
a  Nurenhcrg,  ville  imperiale  du  ccrcle  dc  Franconie,  d'unc  faniille  noble  dont  quclqi-ts  branches 
exiftent  encore  aujourdhui.  Des  fa  plus  tendre  jcunefTc  il  fe  livra  a  I'etude  de  la  geographic, 
de  I'ailronomie  et  de  la  navigation.  Parvenu  a  un  age  mur  il  rcflechit  beaucoup"  fur  la  pof- 
fibilite  d'  Tcxiftence  des  Antipodes  et  d'un  continent  occidental.  Rempli  de  cette  grande  idc'e, 
i'l  fut  trcuver  en  1459  'fabelle  fille  de  Jean  1.  roi  de  Portugal  et  regentc  du  duche  de  Bour- 
gognc  et  de  Flandre.  Apres  lui  avoir  fait  part  de  fes  projet5,  il  en  obtint  un  vaifleau  avee  lequel 
il  fit,  en  1460,  la  decouverte  de  I'ifie  de  Fayal.  II  y  etablit  une  colonic  Flamande,  dont  Ics  de- 
fcendanse-xiftent  encore  .lujour-.ihui  aux  Azores,  qu'on  a  appellees  pendant  quelque  terns  les  ifles 
Flaniandes.  Cette  circouftance  elt  prouvee,  non  fculemcnt  par  les  auteurs  contemporains,  mais 
par  des  manufrrits  conferves  dans  les  archives  de  Nurenberg,  dnnt  voici  la  copie  :  "  Martinus 
"  Behemus,  Joannis  laiDtania;  regis  filis,  quK  port  obitum  Philippi  Burgundi  cognomento 
"  boni,  reruni  doniinabatur,  operam  fuam  addixit,  et  ab  ca  navim  impetravit,  qua  occidentalis 
*'  oceani  haelenus  cognitos  terminos  et  fines  pr^tem'edlus /t/w/.-j  poft  hominum  memoriani 
"  Fayakm  inXulam,  Fago  arbore,  quam  LuQtani  Fa^jc  vocant,  ac   unde  ajipellatio  ci  ha:Ct  abun- 

"  danteni 


^68  MEMOIR    ON    THE 

"  abounding  with  beachtrees,  which  the  people  of  Lufita- 
"  nia  call  Faye;  whence  it  derived  its  name.     After  this 
"  he  dilcovered  the  neighbouring  iflauds,  called  by  one 
"  general  name  the  Azores.,  from  the  multitude  of  hawks 
"  which  build  their  nefts  there  (for  the  Lufitanians  ufe 
"  this  term  for  hawks,  and  the  French  too  ufe  the  word 
"  EJfos  or  Ejores  in  their  purfuit  of  this  game)  and  left 
"  colonies  of  the  Flemiih  on  them ;  when  they  began  to 
"  be  called  Flemifh  iflands,  &c."      Although  this  record  is 
contrary  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  that  the  Azores 
were  difcovered  by  Gonfalva  Velho,  a  Portuguefe,  yet  its 
authenticity  cannot  be  doubted ;   it  is  confirmed  by  feveral 
cotemporary  writers,  and  efpecially  by  Wagenceil,  one  of 
the  moft  learned  men  of  the  laft  century ;  who  after  hav- 
ing travelled  into  Africa,  and  throughout  all  Europe,  was 
made  do£lor  of  laws  at  Orleans  and  chofen  fellow  of  the 
academy  of  Turin  and  Padua,  although  he  was  a  Ger- 
man by  birth.     The  particulars  are  to  be  found  in  his 
imiverfal  hiftory  and  geography.     I  have   moreover  re- 
ceived, from  the  records  of  Nurenberg,  a  note  written  in 
German  on  parchment,  which  contains  the  following  facfls. 
"  Martin  Behem,  efquire,  fon  of  Mr.  Martin  Behem  of 
"  Schroperin,  lived  in  the  reign  of  John  II.  king  of  Portu- 
"  gal,  in  an  illand  which  he  difcovered,  and  called  the  ifland 
"  of  Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores,  lying  in  the  wellern  ocean." 
After  having  obtained  from  the  regent  Ifabella  a  grant 
of  Fayal,  and  refided  there  about  twenty  years,  during 

which 

"  dsntem  reperit,  nee  minus  poftea  finitimas  infulas,  imo  nomine  ab  acclpitrum  ibi  nidifican- 
*'  tium  multitiidine  Ai^ores  diclas  (Lufitani  cnim  hoc  vocabulo  accipiiris  elTi^runt,  et  Gaili  quo- 
**  que  in  aucupiis  verbum  EJfos  et  EJfircs  adhibcnt)  detexit,  ac  liandrorum  colonias  in  iis  rc- 
"  licjuit,  undc  et  infulas  illx  Flandria;  vocari  caperunt,  &c."  Quoique  ce  monument  foit  con- 
traire  a  I'opinion  gcneralement  re^uc  que  les  Acores  ont  ete  decouvertes  ptir  un  Portugais 
nomme  Gonzalve  Velho,  on  ne  fnuioit  Jouter  de  fon  autlienticite  ;  il  fe  trouye  confirme  jiar 
plufieurs  auteurs  contemporains,  et  furtout  par  Wagenfeil,  un  des  plus  grands  favaiis  du  dernier 
fiecle,  qui  apres  avoir  voyage  par  I'Afrique  et  par  toute  I'Europe,  a  etc  fait  dodteur  en  droit  a 
Orleans,  et  academicien  a  Turin  et  a  Padoue  quoiqu'il  fut  ne  Allemand.  On  en  trouve  des 
details  dans  fon  hiftoirc  univerfelle  et  dans  fa  geographic.  On  m'a  d'ailleurs  communique  dans 
les  archives  de  Nurenberg  une  note  en  AUemand  ecrite  fur  parchemin,  contenant  les  faits 
fuivans  :  "  M.  Martin  Beiiam,  ecuyer,  fils  de  ]VI.  Martin  Eeham  de  Scopperin,  a  vecu  fous  le 
*'  regne  de  Jean  11.  roi  de  Portugal,  dans  une  ille  qu'il  a  trouvce  lui  meme,  et  qu'il  a  appellee 
"  iile  de  Fayal;  elle  eft  fituee  aux  Acores  dans  I'occan  occidental." 
Apres  avoir  obtenu  de  la  regeute  Ifabelle  la  proprictc  de  fayal,  et  apres  y  avoir  employe  en- 
viron 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  269 

which  time  he  was  huficd  in  making  frefh  difcovcries  in 
geography,  by  fmall  excurfions,  which  need  not  be  men- 
tioned, Behem  appHed  in  1484  (which  was  eight  years 
before  Cohnnbus's  expedition)  to  John  II.  king  of  Portu- 
gal, to  procure  the  means  of  undertaking  a  great  expedi- 
tion towards  the  foulh-weft.  This  prince  gave  him  fome 
fhips,  with  which  he  difcovered  that  part  of  America, 
which  is  now  called  Brazil  ;  and  he  even  failed  to  the 
freights  of  Magellan,  or  to  the  country  of  fome  favage 
tribes,  whom  he  called  Patagonians,  from  the  extremities 
of  their  bodies  being  covered  with  a  fkin  more  like  a  bear's 
paws  than  human  hands  and  feet.  This  fail  is  proved  by 
authentic  records,  preferved  in  the  archives  of  Nurenberg. 
One  of  which  in  particular  deferves  attention  "  Martin 
"  Behem,  traverfing  the  Atlantic  ocean  tor  feveral  years, 
"  examined  the  American  iflands,  and  difcovered  the 
"  ftrait  which  bears  the  name  of  Magellan,  before  either 
*'  Chriftopher  Columbus  or  Magellan  failed  thofe  feas; 
*'  and  even  mathematically  delineated  on  a  geographical 
*'  chart  for  the  king  of  Lufitania,  the  fituation  of  the 
*'  coaft,  around  every  part  of  that  famous  and  renowned 
*'  ftrait."  This  afTertion  is  fupported  by  Behem's  own 
letters,  written  in  German  and  preferved  in  the  archives 
of  Nurenberg,  in  a  book  which  contains  the  birth  and  il- 
luftrious  adtions  of  the  nobility  of  that  city.     Thefe  let- 

M  m  ters 

tiron  20  annees  a  faire  des  recherches  ulterlcures  fur  la  geographic,  dans  de  petites  excurfions 
<juc  ne  mcritcnt  par  d'etre  rapportces  ici ;  Behem  s'adrefia  en  1484,  c'cit  a  dire  huit  annees 
avant  I'expedition  de  Chriftophe  Colomb,  a  Jean  II.  roi  de  Portugal,  pourobtenir  de  lui  Ics 
moyens  d'entreprendre  une  grandc  expedition  vers  le  fud-oucft.  Ce  prince  lui  confia  quelques 
vaiffeaux  avec  Iciquels  il  d^couvrit  la  partie  de  TAmerique  connue  ious  le  nom  de  Brefil,  et 
il  etendit  meme  fa  navigation  jufqu'au  detroit  de  Alageilan,  ou  a  la  terre  de  quelques  hordes 
fauvages  qu'il  appella  Patagons,  pnifque  les  extremitcs  de  leurs  corps  couvertes  de  peaux  re0cm- 
bloient  plutot  a  des  pattes  d'ours  qu'a  des  pieds  et  a  des  mains.  Ce  fait  eft  prouve  par  des  do- 
cumens  authcntiquesdcpofc's  dans  les  archives  de  Nurenberg.  II  y  en  a  un  liutout  qui  merite 
notre  attention  ;  "  Martinus  Behemus  per  oceanum  Atlanticum  hue  illuc  annos  plufculos 
♦'  oberrans,  ante  Chriftophorum  Columhum  America;  infulas,  ante  Fernandum  Magcllanum, 
"  fretum  quod  al)  eo  cognomcntum  habet  pervefligavit,  unde  et  in  tabula  geo^raphiatlcn^^ prius 
*'  quam  Ma^ellanes  de  expedltione  fua  cogitaiTet,  omnem  circa  infigne  clariliimumque  fretuni 
**  illud  or.T  habltudinem  Lufitania;  regi  radio  delineavit."  Cette  aflertien  fe  trouve  appuyce 
par  des  lettres  de  Behem  ecrites  en  Allemand,  et  confervees  dans  les  archives  de  Nurenberg, 
liana  uu  volume  contenant  I'originc  et  les  uiSions  cdatantes  des patriciensde  cette  viUe.     Ces 

Icttrct 


2  70  MEMOIR      ON     THE 


ters  are  dated  in  i486;  that  is,  fix  years  before  the  expe- 
dition of  Cohimbus.  This  wonderful  difcovery  has  not 
efcaped  the  notice  of  cotemporary  writers.  The  follow- 
ing paffage  is  extradled  from  the  chronicle  of  Hartman 
Schedl:  "In  the  year  1485,  John  the  fecond,  king  of 
"  Portugal,  a  man  of  a  magnanimous  fpirit,  furniflied 
"  fome  gallies  with  provifions,  and  fent  them  to  the  fouth- 
"  ward  beyond  the  llraits  of  Gibraltar.  He  gave  the  com- 
"  mand  of  this  fquadron  to  James  Canus,  a  Portuguefe, 
"  and  Martin  Behem  a  German  of  Nurenberg  in  Upper 
"  Germany,  defcended  of  the  family  of  Bonna,  a  man 
"  very  well  acquainted  with  the  fituation  of  the  globe, 
"  bleffed  with  a  conftitution  able  to  bear  the  fatigues  of 
"  the  fea,  and  who  by  aftual  experiments  and  long  fail- 
"  ing,  had  made  himielf  perfedlly  mafter  with  regard  to 
"  the  longitudes  and  latitudes  of  Ptolemy,  in  the  weft. 
"  Thefe  two,  by  the  bounty  of  Heaven,  coafting  along  the 
"  fouthern  ocean,  and  having  crofted  the  ^equator,  got 
"  into  the  other  hemifphere,  where  facing  to  the  eaft- 
"  ward,  their  fliadows  projected  towards  the  fouth  and 
"  right-hand.  Thus,  by  their  induftry,  they  may  be  faid 
"  to  have  opened  to  us  another  world  hitherto  unknown, 
"  and  for  many  years  attempted  by  none  but  the  Genoefe, 
"  and  by  them  in  vain.  Having  finifhed  this  cruife  in  the 
*'  fpace  of  twenty-fix  months,  they  returned  to  Portugal, 
"  with  the  lofs  of  many  of  their  feamen,  by  the  violence 
"  of  the  climate."  This 

Icttres  font  datces  de  I486,  c'eft  a  dire  fis  annces  avant  I'expedition  de  Chriftophe  Colomb. 
Quelqucs  auteurs  coiitemporain^  n'ont  pas  niancpie  de  faire  mention  d'une  decouvertc  a^iTx 
etonnante.  Je  trouve  entre  autrcs  dans  la  chroiiique  de  Hartman  Schedl  le  palTage  fuivant  : 
'*  Anno  Domini  1485,  Johannes  fecundus  Portugallia;  rex,  altiiFnni  vir  cordis,  cerlas  galeas 
•'  omnibus  ad  vii^liun  necelTariis  inftrujat,  cafque  ultra  columnas  Herculis ad  meridiem  miiit. 
•*  Prafecit  autem  his  patronos  duos  Jacobum  Canuni  Portugallenfem  et  Martinum  Behemum, 
*'  hominemGcrmanum  cxNurimbcrga  fuperiorisGcrmania;  de  Bonna  familia  natum,  honiinem 
"  inqnam  in  cognofccndo  iitu  terra  perit;irimum,  marilijue  patientilTimum,  qui  Ptoloma:!  lon- 
*'  gitudines  et  latitudines  in  occidente  ad  unguem  experimento  lungavaque  navigatione  novit. 
"  Hi  duo,  bono  Deorum  aufpicio  mare  meriodionale  fulcantcs  a  littore  non  longe  evagantes 
*•  fuperato  circulo  aequinodiali  in  altenim  orbem  excepti  funt,  ubi  iplis  ilantibus  orientem 
"  verfus  umbra  ad  meridiem  et  dexteram  projiciebatur.  Aperuere  igkur  fua  mdri/>rla  alium 
**  orbem  JmBmui  m'o'u  itiai^rM-un:  ^nt  multisannis  a  nuUis  quam  a  'Jar.:i£rf:bus  licet  ft  ufira  tentatum; 
"  perafta  autem  hujurniodi  navigatione  viciffiaio  fexto  meufe  reverii  funt  ia  Portugalliam, 
•'  plurjbiis  ob  acris  impatientiam  mortuis." 

Cequi 


DTSCOVEP.Y   OF    AMERICA.  271 

This   paflage   becomes   more   interefting,    from   being 
quoted  in  a  book  on  the  ftate  of  Europe  during  the  reign 
of  the   emperor   Frederick  III.   by  the  learned  hiftorian 
iEneas  Sylvius,   afterwards  pope  Pius  II.     This  hiftorian 
died  before  the  difcoveries  of  Behem  v.'ere  made,  but  the 
publilhers  of  his  works,  thougl.t  the  paflage  in  Hartman 
Schedl  fo  important,  that  they  inferted  it   in  the   hiftory. 
We  alfo  find  the  following  particulars,   in  the  remarks 
made  by  Petrus  Mataius,  on  the  canon  law,  two  years  be- 
fore the   expedition  of  Columbus:  "  The   firft  chriftiaii 
"  voyages  to  the   newly  difcovercd   illands  became  fre- 
*'  quent,  under  the  reign  of  Henry  fon  of  John  king  of 
*'  Lufitania.  After  his  death,  Alphonfus  the  fifth  profecut- 
*'  ed  the  defign,  and    lohn  who  fiicceeded  him  followed 
"  the  plan  of  Alphonfus  by  the  aififtance  of  Martin  Bochm,  - 
*'  a  very  experienced  navigator,  fo  that,  in  a  fliort  time, 
*'  the  name  of  Lufitania  become  famous  over  the  whole 
*'  world."     Cellarius,  one  of  the  moft  learned  men  of  his 
age,  fays  exprefsly :  "  Bcehm  did  not  think  it  enough  to 
*'  furvey  the  ifland  of  Fayal,  which  he  firft  difcovered,  or 
"  the  other    adjacent  iflands  which  the   Lufitanians  call 
*'  Azores,  and  lue  after  the  exa7nple  of  BxhnC^  companions^ 
*'  call  Flemiflj  iflands;  but  advanced  ftill  farther  and  far- 
*'  ther  fouth,  until  he  arrived  at  the  remoteft  ftrait,  be- 
*'  yond  which,  Ferdinand  Magellan,  following  his  tradt, 
*'  afterwards  failed  and  called  it  after  his  own  name." 

M  m  2  All 

Ce  qui  rend  ce  pafTage  plus  interelTant  encore,  c'eft  qu'il  efl:  cite  dans  I'ouvrage  du  favant  hif- 
torien  JEneas  Sylvius^  dcpuis  pape  fous  le  noni  de  Pie  II.  fur  I'cut  de  I'Europe  du  terns  dc 
I'empereur  Frederic  III.  Cct  hirtorien  eft  niort  avant  les  decouvertes  de  Bchcm,  ma?s  I.rr, 
copiftes  de  I'ouvrage  d'yEntas  Sylvius  ont  trouvc  le  paffage  dc  Hartman  Schedl  li  intcrtflant 
tju'ils  Tont  infcrc  dans  le  cori)5dc  cette  hiftoirc.  Nous  trnuvons  d'aillcurs  dans  Ic-s  note  que 
Petrus  Mata;i  a  faitcs  fur  le  droit  canon,  deux  ans  avant  I'expedition  dc  Colomb,  les  details 
Tuivans  :  "  Prima;  navinationes  chriflianae  ad  novas  infulas  eluccfcerc  csperunt  fub  Henrico 
**  Johannis  Lufitanis  re^is  filio,  &:c.  illo  mortuo  Alphonfus  V.  crepta  profccutus  eft  ;  Al- 
**  phonfum  Johannes  Imitatus  opera  Alartin:  Bo/jirf/.-:^  hominis  in  curfu  navium  pcritilnmi,  ut 
**  brevi  tempore  nihil  celebrius  per  totum  orbem  audiretur  ipfo  Lufitania  nomine."  Cel- 
larius, un  des  plus  grands  lavans  de  ion  fiecle,  dit  expreficnicnt  :  "  Behaimius  non  modo 
'*  Fagalem  infulam,  quam  primus  iiivenit,  aut  alias  circumjec^las  quas  Azores  Lufitani,  nos 
*'  Flatidriczs  a  Behaimi  comitibus^  nominant,  perluftrandas  libi  cenfuit,  verum  etiam  in  auftrum 
*'  maejis  ft  magis  progreflus  ufque  ad  ultimum  fretum,  quod  Fcrdinandus  Magellanus  huius 
■*'  du(5ium  fecutus,  pertranfiit  e;  de  luo  id  nomine  appcUavit." 

Toutc» 


272  M    E    M    O    I    R     ON      THE 

All  ihefe  quotations,  which  cannot  be  thought  tedious, 
fmce  they  ferve  to  prove  a  fa<fl  almoft  unknown,  feem  to 
demonftrate,  that  the  firft  difcovery  of  America  is  due  to 
the  Portuguefe,  and  not  to  the  Spaniards;  and  that  the 
chief  merit  belongs  to  a  German  aftronomer.  The  expe- 
dition of  Ferdinand  Magrllan,  which  did  not  take  place 
before  the  year  15191  arofe  from  the  following  fortunate 
circumftance.  This  perfon,  being  in  the  apartment  of  the 
king  of  Portugal,  faw  there  a  chart  of  the  coail  of  Ameri- 
ca, drawn  by  Behem,  and  at  once  conceived  the  bold  pro- 
iedl  of  following  the  fteps  of  this  great  navigator.  Jerome 
Benzon,  who  publiflied  a  defcription  of  America  in  1550, 
fpeaks  of  this  chart,  a  copy  of  which,  fent  by  Behem  him- 
felf,  is  preferved  in  the  archives  of  Nurenberg.  The  cele- 
brated aftronomer  Riccioli,  though  an  Italian,  yet  does  not 
feem  willing  to  give  his  countryman  the  honor  of  this  im- 
portant difcovery.  In  his  geography  reformed,  book  III. 
page  90,  he  fays:  "  Chriftopher  Columbus  never  thought 
*'  of  an  expedition  to  the  Weft  Indies,  until  fome  time 
"  before,  while  in  the  ifland  of  Madeira,  where  amufmg 
"  himfelf  in  forming  and  delineating  geographical  charts, 
*'  he  obtained  information  from  Martin  Boehm,  or  as  the 
*'  Spaniards  fay,  from  Alphonfus  Sanchez  de  Huelva,  a 
*'  pilot,  who  by  meer  chance  had  fallen  in  with  the  ifland 
**  afterwards  called  Dominira."  And  in  another  place, 
*'  let  Boehm  and  Columbus  have  each  their  praife,  they 

"  were 

Toutcs  ces  citations  qui  ne  fauroient  ctre  trop  longties,  parcequ'ellcs  fervent  a  prouver  un 
fait  preltpi'  inconnu,  paroificnt  demontrer  que  la  premiere  decouverte  de  TAmerique  elt  due 
aux  j*ortugais,  et  non  aux  Efpagnols;  et  que  c'eft  un  aftronome  Allemand  qui  etoit  a  leur 
tete.  L'cxpedition  de  Ferdinand  Magellan,  qui  n'a  eu  lieu  qu'en  1519,  eft  due  a  un  hcu- 
reux  hazard.  Ce  navigatcur  le  truuvant  dans  I'appartement  du  roi  de  Portugal,  y  vit  une  carte 
des  cotes  de  rAmcrique  tracee  par  Behem,  et  congut  des  lors  le  projct  hardi  dc  fuivre  la 
route  de  cc  grand  navlgatciu".  Jerome  Benzon,  qui  a  donnee  en  1550,  une  defcription  dc 
I'Anierique,  fait  mention  do  cetre  carte,  dont  on  a  confervc  une  copie  dans  les  archives  de 
Nurenberg,  oil  Behem  I'avoit  envoyee  lui-meme  ;  le  celcbre  aftronome  Riccioli,  qui  etoit  lui- 
meme  Italien,  ne  paroit  pascependant  vouloir  attribucr  a  fon  compatriote  cette  importante  de- 
couverte ;  il  dit  dans  fa  geographic  reformc'c,  livre  3.  p.  90.  "  Chriflophorus  Columbus,  cum 
•*  prius  in  Madera  infula,  uhi  conficiendis  ct  delineandis  chartis  geographicis  vacabat,  indich  ha~ 
"  Into  a  Mari'ino  Boh,:m'j,  aut  ut  Hifjmni  diClitLint  ab  Alphonfo  Sanchez  dc  Huelva,  nauclero 
"  qui  forte  inciderat  in  infulam,  pofiea  BuTnhikarn  diiflani,  cogitavit  de  navigatione  in  Indiam 
"  occidcntalem."     Et  dans  un  autre  endroit,  "  Sit  fua  laus  Eohemo,  Ct  fua  laus  Columbo, 

"  ■,;mbo 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  273 

*'  were  both  excellent  navigators;  but  Columbus  would 
"  never  have  thought  of  his  expedition  to  America,  had 
"  not  Bffihm  gone  there  before  him.  His  name  is  not  fo 
"  much  celebrated  as  that  of  Columbus,  Americus  or  Ma- 
"  gellan,   although  he  is  fuperior  to  them  all." 

But  the  mod;  politive  proof  of  the  great  fervices  ren- 
dered to  the  crown  of  Portugal  by  Behem,  is  the  recom- 
pence  bellowed  onhim  by  king  John,  who  in  1485  knight- 
ed him  in  the  moft  folemn  manner,  in  the  prefence  of  all 
his  court.  I  have  before  me  a  German  paper  extra(fled 
from  the  archives  of  Nurenberg  to  the  following  pur- 
pofe.  "  In  the  year  1485,  on  the  i8th  of  February,  in 
"  Portugal,  in  the  city  of  Allafavas,  and  in  the  church  of 
"  St.  Salvador,  after  the  mafs,  Martin  Behem  of  Nurenberg, 
*'  was  made  a  knight  by  the  hands  of  the  moft  puiifant 
"  lord,  John  the  fecond  king  of  Portugal,  Algarve,  Afri- 
"  ca  and  Guinea;  and  his  chief  fquire  was  the  king  him- 
"  felf,  who  put  the  fword  in  his  belt;  and  the  dukeof  Begia 
"  was  his  I'econd  fquire,  who  put  on  his  ri^ht  fpur;  and 
"  his  third  fquire  was  count  Chriftopher  de  Mela,  the 
"  king's  coufin,  who  put  on  his  left  fpur;  and  his  fourth 
"  fquire  was  count  Martini  Marbarinis  who  put  on  his 
*'  iron  helmet;  and  the  king  himfelf  gave  him  the  blow 
"  on  the  fhoulder,  which  was  done  in  the  prefence  of  all 
"  the  princes,  lords  and  knights  of  the  kingdom:  and  he 

"  efpoufed 

"  ambo  fucnint  magni  navarchi,  fed  nTinquam  de  fua  In  Americam  expcditione  cogitalTet 
"  Columbus  iiifi  Bohcmuni  habuillct  prxdccefloreni.  Hujus  nomcn  non  tantopere  celebra- 
**  tur  qu:into  Columbi,  Americi  et  Magellan!,  quamvjs  histrlbus  fit  pr^eferendus." 

Mais  ce  qui  prouve  plus  que  toute  autre  chole  les  grands  Icrviccs  rcndus  par  Bcliem  a  la 
courcmne  de  Portugal,  c'efl  la  rcconnoillancc  du  loi  Jean,  qui  en  1485,  le  fit  lui-meme  che- 
valier, de  la  maniere  la  plus  folemnelle,  et  en  prefence  de  toute  la  cour.  J'ai  fous  mes  yeux 
un  document  AUemand,  tire  dos  archives  de  Nurenberg,  de  la  tenur  fuivante  :  "  En  1485, 
*'  le  18  Fevrier,  en  Portugal  dans  la  ville  d'Allafavas,  et  dans  Tcglife  de  Santo  Salvador, 
"  apres  la  mcffe,  a  ete  fait  chevalier  Martino  Behem,  de  Nurenberg,  par  la  main  du  tres 
"  puiffunt  feigntur  roi  Jean  fecond  de  Portugal,  roi  d'Algarve,  roi  d'Aftique  et  roi  de 
"  Guincc  ;  et  fon  premier  ccuyer  etoit  le  roi  lui-meme,  qui  mit  fon  epee  a  fon  ceinturon  ;  et 
**  le  due  de  Begia  etoit  fon  fecond  ecuyer  qui  lui  mit  fon  cperon  droit ;  et  fon  troifieme 
"  ecuyer  etoit  le  comte  Chriftophe  de  Mela  eoufm  du  roi,  qui  lui  mit  fon  tperon  gauche  ;  et 
"  fon  quatrieme  ecuyer  etoit  le  comte  Martini  Marbarinis,  qui  lui  mit  fon  cafque  de  fer ;  et 
•'  le  roi  lui  dcnna  lui-meme  un  coup  fur  I'cpaule ;  ce  qui  fe  pafla  en  prefence  de  tous  les  princes 
«'  £t  de  tous  lc8  fcignturs  ct  chevaliers  du  royaumc ;  etil  acfpoufe  la  tille  d'un  grand  fcigneur 

"  en 


274  MEMOIR    ON    the 

*'  efpoufed  the  daughter  of  a  great  lord,  in  confideratlon 
"  of  the  important  fervices  he  had  performed,  and  he  was 
"  made  governor  of  the  ifland  of  Fayah"  Thefe  marks 
of  diftindtion  conferred  on  a  ftranger,  could  not  be  meant 
as  a  recompence  for  the  difcovery  of  the  Azores,  which  was 
made  20  years  before;  but  as  a  reward  for  the  difcovery  of 
Congo,  from  whence  the  chevalier  Behem  had  brought  gold 
and  different  kinds  of  precious  wares.  This  difcovery  made 
much  greater  imprefhon  than  that  of  a  weftern  world,  made 
at  the  fame  time,  but  it  neither  increafed  the  wealth  ot  the 
royal  treafury,  nor  fatisfied  the  avarice  of  the  merchants. 

In  1492  the  chevalier  Behem,  crowned  with  honors 
and  riches,  undertook  a  journey  to  Nurenberg,  to  vifit  his 
native  country  and  his  family.  He  there  made  a  ter- 
reftrial  globe,  which  is  looked  on  as  a  mafter-piece  for 
that  time,  and  which  is  ftill  preferved  in  the  library  of 
that  city.  The  tradt  of  his  difcoveries  may  there  be  feen 
under  the  name  of  weftern  lands,  and  from  their  fituation 
it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  they  are  the  prefent  coafts  of 
Brazil  and  the  environs  of  the  ftraits  of  Magellan.  This 
globe  was  made  in  the  fame  year  that  Columbus  fat  out 
on  his  expedition,  from  whence  it  is  not  poflible  that 
Behem  could  have  profited  by  the  works  of  this  naviga- 
tor, who  befides,  went  a  much  more  northerly  courfe. 

After  having  performed  feveral  other  interefting  voy- 
ages, the  chevelier  Behem  died  at  Lifbon  in  July  1506, 

regretted 

"  en  confideratJon  des  fervices  qu'il  a  rendus,  et  il  a  etc  fait  gouvemeur  de  I'ifle  de  Fayal." 
Cette  grande  diftintSlion  accordce  a  un  ctranger,  nc  pouvoit  etre  la  recompenfe  de  la  decouvcrtc 
ties  Azores,  qui  avoit  eu  lieu  plus  de  20  ans  auparavant ;  mais  elle  ctoit  le  pris  de  la  decouverte 
du  Congo,  d'ou  le  chevalier  Uehem  avoit  apporte  de  Tor  et  plufieurs  marchandifes  precieufes. 
Cette  decouverte  fit  beaucoup  plus  d'imprelTion  que  celle  d'une  terre  occideiitale  faite  dans  le 
meme  terns,  mais  qui  n'offroit  aucun  benefice  au  trefor  royal  ni  a  la  cupidite  des  marchands. 

En  1493,  le  chevalier  Behem,  comblc  d'honneur  et  de  richefies,  cntreprit  un  voyage  a  Nu- 
renberg, pour  revoir  fa  patrie  et  fa  famille.  II  y  compofa  un  globe  terreftre,  qui  ell  regarde 
comme  xm  chef  d'ceuvre  de  fon  terns,  et  qui  efl:  encore  conferve  dans  la  bibiliotheque  de  cette 
ville.  On  y  voit  la  trace  de  fes  decouvertcs  fous  le  nom  de  terres  occldeniaies,  et  par  leur  fi- 
tuation on  ne  peut  difconvenir  qu'cllcs  ne  foient  les  cotes  ac^iielles  du  Erofil  ct  les  environs  du 
detroit  de  Magellan.  Ce  globe  eft.  fait  dans  la  meme  annce  ou  Colomb  a  commence  fon 
expedition  ;  il  eft  done  impoffible  que  Behem  ait  profile  du  travail  de  ce  navigateur,  qui  d'ail- 
Jeurs  a  dirige  fa  courfe  beaucoup  plus  au  nord. 

Apres  avoir  aclieve  plufieurs  autres  voyages  intereffans,  le  chevalier  Behem  mourut  a  I.lf- 

bonnc 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA,  275 

regretted  by  every  body,  but  leaving  behind  him  no  other 
work  than  the  gk^bc  which  we  have  jufl;  been  fpeaking  of. 
It  is  made  from  the  writings  of  Ptolemy,  Pliny,  Strabo, 
and  cfpecially  from  the  account  of  Mark  Paul  the  Vene- 
tian, a  celebrated  traveller  of  the  Xlllth  century,  and  of 
John  Mandeville,  an  Englifliman,  who,  about  the  middle 
of  the  XlVth  century,  publilhed  an  account  of  a  journey 
of  33  years  in  Africa  and  Aha.  He  has  alfo  added  the 
important  diicoveries  made  by  himfelf  on  the  coalts  of 
Africa  and  America. 

From  thele  circumftantial  accounts,  little  known  to  mo- 
dern writers,  we  mull  conclude  that  Mariin  Behenirn.,  of 
whom  Garcilalfo  makes  mention,  is  the  fame  chevalier 
Behem,  upon  being  the  place  of  whofe  birth  Nurenberg 
prides  iti'elf  ib  much.  It  is  probable,  that  as  foon  as  he 
was  knighted  in  Portugal,  he  thought  it  neceffary  to  give 
a  Portuguefe  termination  to  his  name,  to  make  it  more 
fonorousand  more  conformable  to  the  idiom  of  the  country. 
GarcilaiTo,  deceived  by  this  refemblance  of  found,  has  made 
him  a  Spaniard,  in  order  to  deprive  Chriftopher  Colum- 
bus of  the  honor  of  having  procured  to  his  country  lb  great 
an  advantage.  And  what  ought  to  confirm  us  in  this 
opinion  is,  that  we  neither  find  in  Mariana  nor  any  other 
Spaniih  hiftorian,  the  name  of  this  Martin  Behemira,  who 
was  certainly  a  man  of  too  much  importance  not  to  have 
had  a  dillinguiihed  place  in  hiilory.     Befides,  the  Spanifh 

pride: 

bonne  en  Juillet  1506,  generalemcnt  rcgrctte,  mais  nc  laiflant  a  la  pofterite  d'autre  ouvrage 
<iue  le  glohe  dont  nous  vcnons  de  parler.  U  eft  fait  d'apres  Ics  ecrits  de  Ptolomee,  de  Piiiie, 
dc  Strabon,  ct  luitout  d'apres  les  relations  du  Venitien  Marc  Paul,  voyageur  celebre  du  XIII 
Cecle,  et  de  Jean  Mandeville,  Anglois,  qui  au  milieu  du  XIV  Cede  a  public  les  details  d'un 
voyage  de  ,1;,  annecs  en  Afrique  et  en  Afie  ;  il  y  a  ajoute,  les  grandes  decouvertes  qu'il  a 
faites  lui-menie  fus  les  cotes  d'Afrique  et  d'Amcrique. 

D'apres  ccs  details  pcu  connus  des  ecrjvains  modernes,  nous  devons  conclure  que  Murlin 
Behoiirii,  dont  GarcilafTTo  fait  mention,  eft  ce  meme  chevalier  Behem  que  la  ville  de  Nurenberg 
fe  glorifie  d'avoir  vu  naitre  dans  fes  murailles.  II  eft  vraifemblable  qu'au  moment  oil  il  fut 
cree  chevalier  en  Portugal,  il  a  cm  devoir  donner  une  terminaifon  Portugaile-  a  fon  nom, 
pour  le  rendre  plus  fonore  et  plus  conformc  a  I'idiome  iv.  pays.  GarcilafTo  trompe  par  cette 
refemblance  de  fon,  en  a  fait  un  Efpagnol  pour  enlever  a  Chriftophe  Colomb  la  gloire  d'Lvoir 
procure  a  fa  metropolc  un  aulli  grande  acquifition.  Ce  qui  doit  nous  confirmer  dans  cette 
opinion,  c'eft  que  nous  ne  trouvons  ni  dans  Mariana  ni  dans  aucun  autre  hiftoricn  Efpao*nol 
)c  nom  de  ce  Mmtbi  Behemira  qui  aKrojt  du  etre  un  homme  :rop  important  pour  ne  pas  oc- 

cupcrr 


zyS 


MEMOIR     ON     THE 


pride  would  have  been  flattered  in  giving  to  a  native  thofc 
laurels  with  which  it  crowned  Chrillopher  Columbus, 

It  is  then  very  unlikely,  that  this  navigator  was  treated 
as  an  enthufiaft,  when  he  offered  to  the  court  of  Portugal 
to  make  difcoveries  in  the  weft.  The  fearch  after  unknown 
countries  was  at  that  time  the  reigning  paflion  of  this  court; 
and  even  if  the  chevalier  Behem  had  not  offered  the  intereft- 
ing  ideas  which  he  had  procured,  the  novelty  of  the  pro- 
jedl  had  undoubtedly  engaged  king  John  to  give  into  the 
views  of  Columbus;  but  it  appears  that  this  prince  declin- 
ed it,  becaufe  all  his  thoughts  were  turned  at  that  time  to 
the  coaft  of  AflFica,  and  the  new  paffage  to  the  Indies, 
from  whence  he  promifcd  himfelf  great  riches;  whilft  the 
fouthern  coaft  of  Brazil  and  the  territories  of  the  Patago- 
nians,  feen  by  Behem,  offered  to  him  only  barren  lands, 
inhabited  by  unconquerable  favages.  The  refufal  of  John 
II.  very  far  from  weakening  the  teftimony  of  Behem's  dif- 
coveries, is  then  rather  a  proof  of  the  knowledge,  which 
this  politic  prince  had  already  procured,  of  the  exiftence 
of  a  new  continent;  and  it  was  only  in  1501,  that  is  to 
fay  three  years  after  the  voyage  of  Vafco  de  Gama  to  the 
Indies,  that  Emanuel  thought  proper  to  take  advantage  of 
the  difcoveries  of  Behem,  by  fending  Albarez  Cabral  to 
Brazil  ;  a  meafure  which  was  perhaps  rather  owing  to  the 
jealoufy  which  has  always  exifted  between  Portugal  and 

Spain, 

cuper  une  place  diftingiiee  dans  rhiftoirc.     La  fierte  EfpagnoJe  auroit  d'ailleurs  ete  flattce 
d'accorder  a  un  national  les  lauriers  dont  elie  a  couronne  ChrjUophe  Colomh. 

II  eft  done  pen  vraifemblable  que  ce  navigateur  ait  ete  traite  comme  un  extravagant  quand 
jl  offrit  a  la  cour  de  Portugal  de  faire  des  decouvertes  dans  Toueft.  La  recherche  des  pays 
inconnus  ctoit  alors  la  paffion  dominante  de  cette  cour,  et  quand  nieme  le  chevalier  Eehera 
n'auroit  pas  donne  les  notions  iniportantes  qu'il  s'ctoit  procurees,  la  nouveaute  du  projet  eut 
indubitablement  engage  le  roi  Jean  a  fe  prefer  aux  vues  de  Colomb ;  mais  il  paroit  que  ce 
prince  s'y  eft  refufe,  pulfque  routes  les  vues  portoient  alors  fur  la  cote  d'Afrique  et  le  nouveau 
paflage  dans  I'lnde,  d'ou  il  fe  promettoit  de  tirer  de  grandes  richeiTes,  tanaifque  les  cotes 
meridionales  du  Brefil  et  la  terre  des  Patagons,  vues  par  Behem,  ne  lui  offrcient  que  des 
terres  fteriles,  habitees  par  des  fauvages  indomptables.  Le  refus  de  Jean  IT.  bien  loin  d'af- 
foibllr  I'evidence  des  decouvertes  de  Behem,  eft  done  plutot  une  preuve  des  connoilTances 
que  ce  prince  habile  s'etoit  deja  procurees  fur  I'cxiftence  d'lin  nouveau  continent ;  et  ce  n'eft 
qu'en  I501,  c'cft  a  dire  trois  ans  apres  I'expedition  de  Vafco  de  Gama  dans  I'lnde,  qu'Ema- 
puel  jugea  a  propos  de  tirer  parti  des  decouvertes  de  Behem,  en  envoyant  au  Brefil  Albarez 
Cabral ;  niefure  qui  ctoit  peut  ctrc  plutot  une  fuite  de  cette  jalouCe  qui  a  toujours exifte  entre- 

le 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  'i-^-^ 

Spain,  than  to  a  defire  of  making  advantageous  eftablifli- 
ments,  for  which  the  Indies  were  much  more  proper  than 
this  part  of  America. 

If  any  doubts  yet  remain  refpe£ling  the  important  dif- 
covery  made  by  the  chevalier  Behem,  it  is  particularly 
the  authority  of  Dr.  Robertfon,  which  attacks  the  telii- 
mony  of  the  different  authors  we  have  tranfcribed.  This 
learned  writer  treats  the  hiftory  of  Behem  as  a  fidion  of 
fome  German  authors,  who  had  an  inclination  to  attri- 
bute to  one  of  their  countrymen,  a  difcovery,  which  has 
produced  fo  great  a  revolution  in  the  commerce  of  Europe. 
But  he  acknowledges  neverthelefs,  with  Herrera,  that  Be- 
hem had  fettled  at  the  ifland  of  Fayal,  that  he  v/as  the 
intimate  friend  of  Chriftopher  Columbus,  and  that  Ma- 
gellan had  a  globe  made  by  Behem,  by  the  help  of  which 
he  undertook  his  voyage  to  the  South  fea;  a  circumftance 
which  proves  much  in  favor  cf  our  hypothefis.  He  re- 
lates alfo,  that  in  I4C)2,  this  aftronomer  paid  a  vifit  to  his 
family  at  Nurenberg,  and  left  there  a  map  drawn  by  him- 
felf,  which  Dr.  Forfter  procured  him  a  copy  of,  and 
which,  in  his  opinion,  partakes  of  the  imperfedlion  of  the 
coimographical  knowledge  of  the  fifteenth  century;  that 
he  found  in  it,  indeed,  under  the  name  of  the  ifland  of  St. 
Brandon,  land  which  appears  to  be  the  prefent  coaft  of 
Guiana,  and  lies  in  the  latitude  of  cape  Verd,  but  that 
there  is  reafon  to  believe,  that  this  fabulous  ifland,  which 

Nn  is 

le  Portuijal  et  TEfpagne,  que  du  defir  de  faire  des  etablilTemens  avantagcux  aux  quels  I'lnde 
ctoit  heaucoup  plus  propre  que  cette  partie  de  TAmeriquc. 

S'il  nnus  eft  permU  de  doutcr  encore  de  rimportante  dccouvertc  faite  par  Ic  chevalier  Be- 
liem,  c'cft  furtout  I'autoritc  du  Dr.  Robertfon,  qui  duit  porter  atteinte  aux  tcnioigna(;es  des 
dilTercns  auteurs  que  nous  avons  tranfcrits.  Cc  favarit  ecrivain  traite  riillloirc  de  Behem 
comme  une  fidlion  de  quelqucs  auteurs  Allenians,  qui  defiroient  d'attribuer  a  un  de  leurs  coni- 
patriotes  une  decouverte  qui  a  produit  une  fi  grande  revolution  dans  le  commerce  de  I'Eurcpe. 
Mais  il  avoue  ccpendant,  d'apres  Herera,  que  Behem  etoit  ctahli  a  Tide  de  Fayal,  qu'il  ctoit 
Vami  ititlr/:e  tie  Chrijlophc  Cvlcmh,  et  que  Magellan  avoit  eu  un  globe  compofe  par  Behem,  d'apres 
Icquel  il  avoit  entrepris  fon  expedition  dans  la  mer  du  Sud  ;  circonftance  qui  prouve  beaucoup 
tn  faveur  de  notre  hypothefe.  II  rapporte  de  plus  qu'en  1492,  cet  aftronome  a  ete  voir  fa 
lamille  a  Nurenberg,  et  qu'il  y  a  lailte  une  carte  dcfilHec  parlui-meme  ;  que  le  Dr.  Foriler 
lui  a  procure  une  copie  de  cette  carte,  qui  fuivant  lui  fe  rcffent  de  rimperfctlion  des  connoil- 
Jances  cofmographiques  du  XV  fieclc  ;  qu'il  y  a  trouve  a  la  verite  fous  le  noni  de  I'iflc  de  St. 
Brandon,  une  terre  qui  paroit  etrc  la  cult;  actueUe  de  la  yuyane,  ct  qui  til  {'lucce  dans  la  la- 
titude 


278  MEMOIR      ON     T  HE 

is  found  In  many  ancient  maps,  merits  no  more  attentiori- 
than  the  childiili  legend  of  St.  Brandon  himfelf.  AUhough 
Dr.  Robertfon  does  not  appear  difpofed  to  grant  to  Behem 
the  honor  of  having  difcovered  the  new  continent,  we  find 
the  means  of  refuting  him  in  his  own  hiftory.  He  allows 
that  Behem  was  very  intimate  with  Chriftoplier  Columbus, 
that  he  was  the  greateft  geographer  of  his  time,  and  fcho- 
lar  of  the  celebrated  John  Muller  or  Regiomontanus  ;  that 
he  had  difcovered,  in  1483,  the  kingdom  of  Congo  upon 
the  coaft  of  Africa  ;  that  he  made  a  globe,  which  Magel- 
lan made  ufe  of;  that  he  drew  a  map  at  Nurenberg  con- 
taining the  particulars  of  his  difcoveries,  and  that  he 
placed  in  this  chart  land  which  is  found  to  be  in  the  lati- 
tude of  Guiana.  Dr.  Robertfon  afferts,  without  any  proof, 
that  this  land  was  but  a  fabulous  ifland;  we  may  fuppofe, 
upon  the  fame  foundation,  that  the  chevalier  Behem,  en- 
gaged in  an  expedition  to  the  kingdom  of  Congo,  was 
driven  by  the  winds  to  Fernambouc,  and  from  thence,  by 
the  currents,  very  common  in  thofe  latitudes,  towards  the 
coaft  of  Guiana  ;  and  that  he  took  for  an  ifland  the  firft 
land  which  he  difcovered.  The  courfe  which  Chriftopher 
Columbus  afterwards  fleered,  makes  this  fuppofition  ftill 
more  probable  ;  for  if  he  knew  only  of  the  coaft  of  Brazil, 
which  they  believe  to  have  been  difcovered  by  Eehem,  he 
would  have  laid  his  courfe  ratherto  the  fouth-weft.    The 

expedition . 

titude  du  cap  Verd;  mais  qu'il  y  a  lieu  de  croirc,  que  cette  iHe  fabuleufe,  qui  fe  trouve  fur  plu- 
ileurs  anciennes  cartes,  ne  meritc  pas  plus  d'attcntion  que  la  legcnde  puerile  de  St.  Brandon 
3ui-meme.  Quoique  le  Dr.' Robertfon  ne  paroifie  pas  difpofe  d'accorder  a  Beiiem  la  gloire 
d'avoir  decouvert  le  nouveau  continent,  nous  trouvons  dans  fon  hiftoire  meme  des  amies  pour 
1e  combattre.  II  convient  que  Behem  etoit  tres  lie  avec  Chriftophc  Colomb,  quil  etoit  le 
plus  grand  geographe  de  fon  terns,  ct  difciple  du  celebre  Jean  Muller  ou  Regiomontanus ; 
ou'il  a  decouvert  en  1483,  le  royaume  de  Congo,  fur  la  cote  d'Afrique;  qu'il  a  compofe  un 
•'■lobe  dont  s'eft  fcrvi  Ma»rellan  ;  qu'il  a  deffine  a  Nurenberg,  une  carte  contenant  des  details 
fur  fes  decouvertes,  et  qu'il  a  marque  fur  cette  carte  une  terre  qui  fe  trouve  dans  la  latitude 
dc  la  Guyane  atSuelle.  Le  do(51eur  Robertfon  admet  fans  aucune  preuve,  que  cette  terre 
Ti'etoit  qu'une  ifle  fabuleufe  ;  nous  pouvons  fuppofer  avec  autant  de  fondement,  que  le  cheva- 
lier Behem  faifant  fon  expedition  dans  le  royaume  de  Congo,  ait  etc  pouffc  par  les  vents  vers 
Fernambouc,  et  de  la  par  des  courans  tres  conimuns  dans  ces  parages  vers  les  cotes  de  la 
Guyane,  et  qu'il  ait  pris  pour  une  ifle  la  premiere  terre  qui  s'eft  ofterte  a  fes  yeux.  l.a  route 
qu'a  pris  dans  la  fuite  Chriftophe  Colomb  rend  cette  fuppofition  encore  plus  vraifemblaWe, 
car  sMl  n'avoit  eu  connoiflance  que  des  cotes  du  Brefil,  que  I'on  croit  avoir  etc  rcconnues  par 
Behem,  il  auroit  dirige  fa  navigation  plutot  vers  le  fud-oueft.     L'expedition  au  Congo  a  eu 

lieu 


DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA.  279 

expedition  to  Congo  took  place  in  1483  ;  it  is  then  pof- 
fible,  that,  at  his  return,  Behem  propofed  a  voyage  to  the 
coalls  of  Brazil  and  Patagonia,  and  that  he  requellcd  the 
affiftance  of  his  fovereign,  which  we  have  mentioned 
above.  It  is  certain,  that  we  cannot  have  too  much  de- 
ference for  the  opinion  of  fo  eminent  a  writer  as  Robert- 
fon,  but  this  learned  man  not  having  it  in  his  power  to 
confult  the  German  pieces  in  the  original,  which  we  have 
quoted,  we  may  be  allowed  to  form  a  different  opinion 
without  being  too  prefumptuous. 

But  fhould  it  be  aflced,  why  we  take  from  Chriflopher 
Columbus  the  reputation  which  all  Europe  has  to  this  day 
allowed  him?  Why  we  are  fearching  in  the  archives  of 
an  imperial  city,  for  the  caufes  of  an  event  which  took 
place  in  the  moll  weftern  extremity  of  Europe  ?  Why  the 
enemies  of  Chriftopher  Columbus,  who  were  numerous, 
did  not  take  advantage  of  the  pretended  chevr.  Behem, 
to  leifen  his  confequence  at  the  Spanifli  court?  Why  Por- 
tugal, jealous  of  the  difcovery  of  the  new  world,  had  not 
proteftcd  againft  the  affertrons  of  the  Spaniards?  Why 
13ehem,  who  died  only  in  1506,  had  not  left  to  pofterity 
any  writing  to  confirm  to  himfelf  fo  important  a  difco- 
very ? 

To  anfwer  all  thefe  queftions,  I  fhall  fubmit  to  the  im^- 
partial  reader,  the  following  remarks : 

N  n  2  I.  Before 

lieu  en  1483,  il  eft  done  polTiblc  qu'a  fon  retour  Behem  ait  projtrttt:  une  expedition  vers  la 
cotes  du  Brefil  et  des  Patayons,  et  qu'il  ait  demande  a  fon  I'uuverain  les  fecoiirs  dont  nous 
avous  parlc  plus  haut.  II  eft  fur  qu'on  ne  lauroit  avoir  trop  de  deference  pour  I'opinion  d'un 
ecrivain  tel  que  Robertfon,  mais  ce  favant  n'ayant  pu  avoir  connoifTance  des  pieces  Alle- 
mandes  originales  que  nous  avous  citees,  nous  pouvons  avoir  un  avis  different  du  ficn  fans 
nous  rendrc  coupai>ie  de  prcfomption. 

Mais,  dira-tou,  pourquoi  enlcver  a  Chriftophe  Colomb  une  gloire  que  toute  I'Europe  !ui  a 
accordee  jufqu'ici  ?  Pourquoi  chercher  dans  les  archives  d'une  viUe  imperiale  les  caufes  d'un 
evencment  qui  a  eu  lieu  a  rextrcmitc  la  plus  occidentale  de  I'Europe  ?  Pourquoi  les  ennemis' 
de  Chriltophe  Colomb,  qui  etoient  en  grand  nombrc,  n'ont  'ils  pas  tire  parti  des  pretendues 
decouvertes  du  Chevalier  Behem  pour  diminuer  ion  importance  a  la  cour  d'Efpao-ne  ?  Pour- 
quoi le  Portugal,  jaloux  de  la  decouvertc  du  nouveau  nioude,  n'at'il  pas  protefte  centre  Ics 
aflertions  des  Efpagnols  ?  Pourquoi  Behem  qui  n'cft  mort  qu'en  1506,  n'at'il  pas  laifte  lui 
meme  a  la  pofterite  un  ecrit  pour  s'attribuer  une  decouverte  aufti  importante  ? 

Pour  repondi'e  a  toutes  ces  tjueftions  je  foumettrai  au  leiili;ur  impartial  les  remarqucs 
fuivantes : 

I.  Avant 


28o  M    E   M    O    I   R     ON      THE 

1.  Before  Columbus,  the  great  merit  of  a  navigator 
confifled  rather  in  conceiving  the  poffibiHty  of  the  exift- 
ence  of  a  new  continent,  than  in  fearching  for  lands  in  a 
region  where  he  was  fure  to  find  them.  If  it  is  then  cer- 
tain that  Behem  had  conceived  this  bold  idea  before  Co- 
lumbus, the  fame  of  the  latter  muft  be  confiderably  di- 
miniihed, 

2.  The  hiftorical  proofs,  which  we  have  given  above> 
leaving  us  no  doubt  of  the  fa£l,  we  have  only  to  explain 
the  moral  caufes  of  the  filence  of  the  Spanifh  and  Portu- 
guefe  authors,  of  the  enemies  of  Columbus,  and  of  Behem 
himfelf. 

3.  It  is  well  known,  that  previous  to  the  reign  of 
Charles  V.  there  was  little  communication  between  the 
learned  men  of  different  nations.  Writers  were  fcarce, 
excepting  fome  monks  who  have  related,  well  or  ill, 
the  events  which  came  to  their  knowledge,  in  chronicles 
which  are  no  longer  read;  or  they  had  but  little  idea  of 
w^hat  pafled  in  foreign  countries.  Gazettes  and  journals 
were  unknown,  and  the  learned  obliged  to  travel  to  in- 
form themfelves  of  the  progrefs  of  their  neighbours.  Ita- 
ly was  the  center  of  the  arts  and  what  are  called  fcience 
at  that  time.  The  frequent  journies  of  the  German  em- 
perors to  Rome  gave  them  an  opportunity  of  knowing 
perfons  of  merit,  and  of  placing  them  in  the  different  uni- 
verfitles  of  the  empire,     it  is  to  this  circumftance  that  we 

ought 

1.  Avant  Colomb  le  grand  mcrite  d'un  navigateur  confidoit  plutot  a  con5evoir  la  poiTibilite 
de  I'exiP^t'nce  d'un  nouvcau  continent,  qu'a  chcrcher  dcs  terres  dans  une  region  ou  il  etoit  fur 
d'en  trouver.  S'il  eft  done  certain  que  Behcni  a  eu  cette  idee  hardie  avant  Colomb,  la  gloire 
de  ce  dernier  en  efl;  fmgulierement  diminucc. 

2.  Toutes  les  preuves  hiftoriqucs  que  nous  avous  donnc's  ci  deffus  ne  nous  laiffant  aucun 
doute  fur  le  fait,  il  s'agit  feulement  d'expliquer  les  caufes  morales  du  filence  des  auteurs 
Efpagr.oU  et  Portugais,  des  ennemis  de  Colomb,  et  de  Beliem  lui-meme. 

■;.  On  fait  qu'^vant  Charles  quint  il  y  avoit  tres  peu  de  communication  cnlre  les  favans 
des  diflerentes  nations.  Les  ecrivains  etoient  fort  rarcs,  a  I'exception  de  quelques  mcines  qui 
ont  rapportc  bien  ou  mal  les  evenemens  qui  etoient  a  Icur  portce  dans  des  chroniqiies  qu'on 
ne  lit  plus,  ou  n'avoit  que  peu  de  notions  iiir  ce  qui  fe  paffoit  en  pays  etranger ;  les  gazettes, 
les  journaux  etoint  inconnus,  et  les  favans  etoient  obliges  de  voyager  pour  voir  de  leurs  pro- 
pres  yeux  les  progres  de  leurs  voifms.  L'ltalie  etoit  le  centre  des  arts  et  de  ce  qu'on  apptlloit 
fcience  dans  ce  tems-la.  Les  frequens  voyages  dcs  empercurs  d'Allemagne  a  Rome  Icur  don- 
na la  Lvilite  de  connoitre  des  gens  de  mcrite,  et  de  les  placer  dans  les  differentes  univerCtcs 

de 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  281 

ought  to  attribute  the  great  progrefs  which  the  Germans 
made,  particularly  in  mathematics,  from  the  fourteenth  to 
the  lixteenth  century;  during  which  time  they  had  the 
bed  geographers,  the  beft  hiPtorians,  and  the  moft  en- 
lightened politicians.  They  were  particularly  attentive  to 
what  paifed  in  Europe,  and  the  multiplied  connexions  of 
different  princes  with  foreign  powers,  affifted  them  great- 
ly in  colledting  in  their  archives  the  original  pieces  of  the 
moft  important  events  of  Europe.  It  is  to  this  fpirit  of 
criticilm  and  enquiry,  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  refor- 
mation of  Luther,  and  we  cannot  deny,  that  particularly 
m  the  fifteenth  century,  there  was  more  hiftorical  and 
political  knovv'ledge  in  Germ.any  than  in  all  the  reft  of 
Europe,  Italy  excepted.  It  is  not  then  aftoniftiing,  that 
we  fhould  find,  in  the  archives  of  one  of  the  moft  ancient 
imperial  cities,  the  particulars  of  an  expedition,  planned 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Tagus  by  a  German,  a  man  of 
great  repute  in  his  own  country,  and  whofe  every  aftlon 
became  very  interefting. 

4.  It  was  different  in  Portugal,  where  the  whole  nati- 
on, except  the  king,  was  plunged  in  the  moft  profound 
ignorance.  Every  body  was  either  fhopkeeper,  failor  or 
foldier;  and  if  this  nation  has  made  the  moft  important 
difcoveries,  we  muft  afcribe  them  rather  to  avarice  than  to 
a  defire  of  knowledge.     They  were  fatisfied  with  fcrap- 

ing 

de  Tempire.  C'efl:  a  ccttc  circonllance  que  Ton  dolt  attribuer  les  grands  progres  que  les  Al- 
Icir.ans  ont  faits  furtout  dans  Ics  mathematiqnes,  dcpuis  ie  XIV.  juiqu'au  XV!.  fiecle;  ils 
avoient  les  meilleurs  geographcs,  les  meilleurs  hiftoriens  et  les  politiques  les  plus  cclaires, 
lis  etoicnt  attentifs  fur  tout  ce  qui  fc  paffoit  en  Europe,  et  les  liaifons  muUipliees  des  diffe- 
rens  princes  nvec  les  puIfTances  ctrangercs,  leur  donnoient  unc  grande  facilite  de  raflembler,  , 
dans  leurs  archives,  les  pieces  originales  de'^  evcnemens  les  plus  importans  de  TEuropc.  C'efl 
a.cet  cfprit  dc  critique  et  de  recherclie  qu'eft  due  en  grande  partie  la  reformation  de  I.uther, 
et  on  ne  pent  fe  dUlimuler,  que,  furtout  dsnsle  XV.  fieclc,  il  n'y.^it  eu  plus  de  connoifTances 
hi.n;oriqucs  et  politiques  en  Allemagne  que  dans  tout  le  refte  de  TEurope,  a  I'exception  de 
ritalie.  II  n'efl:  done  pas  ctonnant  que  nous  trouvions  dans  les  archives  d'une  des  plus  anci- 
ennes  villes  imperiales  des  details  fur  une  expedition,  projettt  fur  les  bords  du  Tage  par  uii 
AUcmand.  par  un  homme  tres  confiderc  dans  fon  pays,  et  dont  parcr.nfcquent  toutes  les  de- 
marches deviiioient  interclTantes. 

4.  II  n'en  etoit  p;is  de  meme  du  Portugal,  oil  toutc  la  nation  a.  I'exception  du  fouvcrain, 
ctoit  plongc-c  dans  la  plus  prcfonde  ignorance.  Tout  Ic  monde  y  etoit  ou  marchand,  ou  nia- 
telot,  ou  foldat;  et  fi  cc  peuplc  a  fait  les  decouvertes  les  plus  impnrtantcs,  il  faut  en  cherchcr  le 
motif  dans  fa  cupidite,  et  non  dans  fon  defir  dc  s'iiiflruirc.     li  fc  contenta  d'amaffer  dc  I'or 


282  MEMOIR     ON      THE 

ing  together  gold  in  every  quarter  of  the  known  world, 
whilft  the  German  and  the  Italian  took  up  the  pen,  to 
tranlmit  to  pofterity  the  remembrance  of  their  riches  and 
cruelties.  The  Spaniards  were  not  much  more  informed 
before  Charles  V.  introduced  at  Madrid  the  learned  men 
of  Flanders  and  Germany.  It  is  then  very  poffible,  that 
the  chevr.  Behem  made  very  interefting  diicoveries  in 
geography,  in  1485,  without  the  public's  being  acquaint- 
ed with  them.  If  he  had  brought  back  from  his  expedi- 
tion, gold  or  diamonds,  the  noil'e  would  have  been  fpread 
in  a  few  weeks;  but  fimple  geographical  knowledge  was 
not  of  a  nature  to  intereft  men  of  this  turn  of  mind. 

5.  The  long  ftay  which  Chriftopher  Columbus  made 
at  Madeira,  makes  his  interview  with  Behem  more  than 
probable.  It  is  impofTible  that  he  fhould  have  negledted 
feeing  a  man  fo  intereiling,  and  who  could  give  him  every 
kind  of  information,  for  the  execution  of  the  plan  which 
he  had  formed.  The  mariners  who  accompanied  the 
chevr.  Behem,  might  alfo  have  fpread  reports  at  Madeira 
and  the  Azores,  concerning  the  difcovery  which  they  had 
been  witnefl'es  of.  What  ought  to  confirm  us  in  this,  is, 
that  Mariana  fays  himfelf  (book  26.  chap.  III.)  that  a  cer~ 
tain  vefld  going  to  Africa,  was  thrown  by  a  gale  of  wind 
upon  certain  unknown  lands,  and  that  the  failors  at  their 
return  to  Madeira  had  communicated  to  Chriftopher  Co- 
lumbus 

dans  toutes  les  parties  du  monde  connu,  tDndifque  rAllematid  ct  I'ltalien  tcnoient  la  plume 
pour  tranfmtttre  a  la  pofterite  le  fouvcnir  dc  les  richelTes  et  de  fes  cruautes.  l^es  Elpagnols 
u'ctolent  par  beaucoup  plus  inftruits,  avant  que  Charlcsquint  eut  amenc  a  Madrid  des  lavans 
de  Flandres  et  d'AUemagne.  II  eft  done  trcs  poffible  que  le  chevalier  Behem  ait  fait  en 
1485,  des  decouvertes  tres  intereflantes  pour  la  geographie,  fans  que  le  public  en  ait  ete  in- 
ftruit.  S'il  eut  rapporte  de  fon  expedition  de  Tor  ou  des  diamans,  le  bruit  s'en  leroit  repandu 
en  peu  de  femaines,  mais  de  fiinples  notions  geographiques  n'ctoient  pas  de  nature  a  interef- 
fer  des  hommes  de  cette  trempe. 

5.  Le  long  fiiour  qu'a  fait  Chriftophe  Colomb  a  Madere,  rend  fon  cntrcvue  avec  Behem 
plus  que  vraifeniblable.  11  eft  impoQible  qu'il  ait  neglige  de  voir  un  Iiomme  aulTi  intereftant, 
et  qui  pouvoit  lui  donner  toutes  fortes  de  confeils  fur  I'execution  du  plan  qu'il  avoit  forme. 
Les  marins  qui  ont  acconipagne  le  chevalier  Behem  pouvoient  d'ailleurs  repandre  a  Madere', 
et  aux  Azores,  des  bruits  concernant  les  decouvertes  dont  ils  avoient  etc  temoins.  Ce  qui 
doit  nous  confirmer  dans  cette  opinion,  c'eft  que  Mariana  dit  lui-meme  (livre  26.  chap.  .3.) 
qu'un  ceitaht  batiment  allant  en  Afrique,  avoit  ete  jette  par  un  coup  de  vent  fur  de  certaines 
terres  inconnues ;   et  que  les  matelots  apres  leur  retour  a  Madexc,  avoient   commiinique  i 

Chriftophe 


DISCOVERY    OF    AMERICA.  28^ 

Fumbus  the  circumftances  of  their  voyage.  All  authors  agree 
that  this  learned  man  had  ibme  information  refpedting 
the  weftern  fliores,  but  they  fpeak  in  a  very  vague  man- 
ner. The  expedition  of  the  chevr.  Behem  explains  this, 
myftery. 

6.  This  aftronomer  could  not  be  jealous  of  the  difco- 
veries  of  Columbus,  becaufe  the  laft  had  been  farther 
north,  and  that  in  a  time  when  they  did  not  know  the 
whole  extent  of  the  new  world,  and  when  geographical 
knowledge  was  extremely  bounded,  it  might  be  believed, 
that  the  country  difcovered  by  Columbus,  had  no  connec- 
tion with  that  difcovered  by  Behem. 

It  appears  however,  certain,  that  Behem  difcovered  this 
continent  before  Columbus,  and  that  this  queflion,  which 
is  only  curious  in  Europe,  becomes  ioterefting  to  the 
American  patriot.  The  Grecians  have  carefully  preferv- 
ed  the  fabulous  hiftory  of  their  firft  founders,  and  have 
raifed  altars  to  them;  why  are  not  Behem,  Chriftopher 
Columbus  and  Vefpucius,  deferving  of  ftatues,  in  the 
public  fquares  of  American  cities  ?  Thefe  precious  monu- 
ments would  tranfmit  to  pofterity  the  gratitude  which 
the  names  of  thefe  benefadlors  of  mankind  fliould  infpire. 
Without  knowing  it,  they  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
happlnefs  of  many  millions  of  inhabitants;  and  Sefoftris, 
Phul,  Cyrus,  Thefeus  and  Romulus,  the  founders  of  the 

greateft'. 

Chriftophe  Colonib  les  circonftances  de  leur  navigation.  Tous  les  auteurs  s'accordent  en. 
gijiicral,  que  ce  favant  avoit  eu  quelques  renfcip;ncniens  fur  des  tcrrcs  occidentalos,  niais  ils 
Hc  nous  en  parlent  que  d'uue  maniere  tres  vague.  L'expcdition  du  chevalier  Beliem  nous 
cxplique  ce  niyllere. 

6.  Cet  aftronome  ne  pouvoit  ctre  jaloux  des  dccouvertes  de  Cotomb,  puifque  celui-ci  a. 
ete  beaucoup.  plusnord  ;  et  que  dand  un  tenis  oii  i'on  ne  connoifloit  par  toute  I'etendue  du 
iTouveau  nionde,  et  oil  les  comioifTances  gcog;raphiques  etoient  extrememcnt  bomees,  ou  pou- 
voit croire  que  le  pays  trouve  par  Colomb  n'avoit  aucun  rapport  avec  celui  de  Behem. 

Quoiqu'il  en  foit,  il  paroit  certain  que  Behem  a  decouvert  ce  continent  avant  Colonib  et 
que  cettc  queftion  qui  n'eft  que  de  pure  curiofite  en  Europe,  devient  intereffante  pour  le  pa- 
triote  Amei-icain.  Les  Grccs  ont  conferve  folgneufcnient  riiilloirc  fabuleufe  de  leurs  pre- 
mieres foiidateurs,  ils  leur  ont  eleve  des  autcls ;  pourquoi  Behem,  Chriftophe  Colomb  et 
Vefpuce  ne  meriteroicnt'-ils  pas  des  ftatues  fur  les  places  publiques  des  viUcs  Americaine?  ? 
Oes  monumens  precieux  tranfmettroient  a  la  pofterite  la  reconnoilTance  que  doivent  infpircr 
les  noms  de  ccs  bienfaiteurs  du  genre  Kuniain.  Sans  le  favoir  ils  ont  jette  les  fondemcns  du 
bonheur  d=  pluCcurs  millions  d''habit=ns ;  et  Sefofliis,   Phul,  Cyrus,  Thefce,  Romulus,  Ks 

focdateurs  ■ 


284      Of   vegetable   ACID    and 

greateft  empires,  will  be  forgotten,  before  the  fervices  ren- 
dered by  thele  illuftrious  navigators  can  be  effaced  from 
the  memory  of  man. 

fondateurs  des  plus  grands  empires,  feront  oublies,  avant  que  les  fervices  rendus  par  ces  na- 
viguteurs  illuftres,  puiffent  s'effacer  de  la  memuire  des  homir.es. 


N°  XXXVI. 

The  antlfeptic  Virtues  of  Vegetable  Acid  and  Marine  Salt 
combined.,  in  -various  DiJ'orders  accompanied  ivith  Pu- 
tridity;  communicated  in  a  Letter  to  John  Morgan, 
M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  and  Profejfor  of  the  Theory  and  Pra^ice 
of  Phyfic  at  Philadelphia,  by  William  Wright,  M. 
D.  ofTrelaxvney  in  "Jamaica. 

HAVING  experienced  the  virtues  of  vegetable  acid 
and  marine  fait,  when  combined  ;  I  beg  leave  to 
lay  before  you  a  few  obfervations  on  the  ufe  of  this  iimple 
medicine  in  feveral  difeafes.  It  is  my  fincere  wifh,  that 
it  may  prove  as  beneficial  to  mankind  in  general,  as  it  has 
been  to  many  of  my  patients  in  this  part  of  the  country. 

Take  of  lime-juice  or  lemon-juice  three  ounces,  of  ma- 
rine fait  as  much  as  the  acid  will  diflblve  ;  of  any  fimple 
diftilled  cordial  water  one  pint ;  and  of  loaf  fugar  a  fuf- 
ficient  quantity  to  fweeten  it.  The  dofe  of  this  mixture 
muft  be  proportioned  to  the  age,  fex,  and  violence  of  the 
difeafe.  A  wine  glafs-ful  may  be  given  to  adults  every 
two,  four  or  fix  hours. 

By  GeofTroy's  table  it  appears,  that  the  foffil  alkali  has 
a  greater  affinity  with  the  marine,  than  with  the  vegeta- 
ble acid.  However,  marine  fait  diffolves  readily  in  the 
lime-juice,  throws  up  a  white  fcum  to  the  furface,  and  on 
applying  the  ear  near  the  veffel  where  the  experiment  is 
made,  a  fmall  hiffing  may  be  heard,  fimilar  to  that  when 

acids 


MARINE      SALT.  285 

ticids  and  alkalies  are  mixed.  It  would  feem  probable 
that  part  of  the  marine  fait  is  hereby  decompofed. 

That  vegetable  acids  and  marine  fait  are  antifeptics,  has 
long  been  known,  but  their  etfefts  when  mixed  I  appre- 
hend to  be  but  lately  difcovered. 

Without  farther  preface,  I  fliall  proceed  to  the  particu- 
lar difeafes  in  which  they  have  been  adminiftered,  pre- 
pared as  above. 

Of    the    dysentery. 

The  dyfentery  is  a  very  frequent  diforder  in  this  and 
other  Weft-India  iflands;  and  fometimes  is  epidemic,  par- 
ticularly in  the  rainy  feafons,  or  when  provifions  are  fcarce. 
Amongft  other  cauies  of  dyfenteries,  1  have  often  known 
the  eating  of  yams  not  arrived  at  maturity,  as  alio  unripe 
alligator  pears,  produce  a  bloody  flux. 

Dyfenteries  commonly  begin  with  frequent  loofc  ftools 
for  a  day  or  two,  attended  with  gripings :  by  degrees,  the 
gripes  grow  more  Tevere,  nothing  is  voided  by  ftool  but 
a  fmall  quantity  of  mucus,  mixed  with  blood  ;  a  tenefmus 
comes  on  and  is  exceedingly  troublefome. 

The  appetite  fails,  the  patients  are  low  fpirited,  and  fuf- 
fer  a  great  proftration  of  ftrength.  The  mouth  and  tongue 
are  much  furred  and  flimy,  and  the  tafte  is  like  that  of 
rotten  butchers  meat.  The  defire  of  drink  is  fometimes 
excefTive,  but  for  the  moft  part  very  moderate.  The  pulfe 
is  very  low,  feeble  and  undulating;  and  rarely  rifes  fo 
high,  as  to  indicate  the  ufe  of  a  lancet.  Such  was  the 
dyfentery  in  177 1.  It  proved  fatal  to  many  people,  both 
old  and  young,  though  treated  according  to  the  moft  ap- 
proved methods  of  cure,  and  the  lofs  of  feveral  patients 
of  mine,  convinced  me  of  the  neceflity  of  ufing  antifep- 
tics early  in  this  difeafe. 

A  vomit  feemed  neceflary  to  clear  the  ftomach,  and 
fome  gentle  purge,  to  carry  off  part  of  the  offending  mar- 

O  o  ter 


286        Of    vegetable   ACID    and- 

ter  by  ftooL  But  the  adion  of  thefe,  however  mild,  often 
increafed  the  proftration  of  ftrength,  and  rendered  the 
ftools  fooner  bloody.  Nor  was  opium  of  any  real  ufe. 
A  tea  made  of  Simarouba  and  given  to  fome,  had  a  very 
falutary  efled:,  whilft,  if  given  to  others,  it  would  by  no 
means  lye  on  their  ftomachs. 

From  a  confideration  of  the  antlfeptic  quality  of  both  the 
fal:  marin:  and  of  the  vegetable  acid,  I  was  induced  to  make 
trial  of  their  effeds  united  in  the  manner  above  mention- 
ed. It  a£ted  like  a  charm,  and  I  find  that  from  the  ufe 
of  it,  the  frequency  of  ftools,  gripes  and  tenefmus,  have 
foon  worn  off;  the  ftools  gradually  become  of  a  natural 
confiftenceand  quantity;  the  fpirits,  ftrength  and  appetite 
returned,  and  the  patient  has  been  reftored  to  perfedl  health 
in  a  very  few  days. 

When  the  dyfentery  was  of  long  ftanding,  ftarch  cly- 
fters,  with  a  fmall  portion  of  opium,  abated  the  tenefmus.. 

This  medicine  was  equally  ferviceable  in  diarrhoeas.. 

DIABETES. 

As  I  had  fucceeded  fo  well  in  the  cure  of  dyfenteries, 
I  was  determined  to  try  its  eftedls  in  the  diabetes  :  fe- 
veral  opportunities  foon  offered ;  but  as  thefe  cafes  were 
accompanied  with  other  complaints,  efpecially  with  fevers 
of  the  remitting  kind,  it  will  be  proper  firft  to  Ipeak  of 

The    remittent   FEVER. 

This  by  far  the  moft  common  fever  within  the  tropics, 
is  the  leaft  underftood,  and  conlequently  for  the  moft  part 
badly  treated.  Strangers,  who  walk  much,  or  work  hard 
in  the  heat  of  the  fun,  are  more  fubjedl  to  it  than  feafon- 
ed  Europeans  or  natives  of  the  country. 

Dr.  Cleghorn's  defcription  of  this  fever  is  accurate  and 
juft.     His  method  of  cure,  funple  and  eafy.     Every  phy- 

fician 


MARINE      SALT.  287 

ficlan,  who  would  wifh  to  pradllce  with  fuccefs,  fliould  be 
well  acquainted  with  that  valuable  performance,  as  alio 
with  what  Dr.  Lind  has  laid  on  the  fubjeft. 

It  is  then  fufficient  here,  to  obferve  that  remittent  fevers 
are  often  attended  with  diarrhoeas,  the  diabetes,  and  fome- 
times  with  a  copious  difcharge  of  faliva,  as  if  mercury 
had  been  previoufly  given.  In  fuch  circumftances  I  ne- 
ver found  the  bark  of  fervice;  a  few  glafl'es  of  the  above 
mixture  fully  anfwered  the  intention,  not  only  by  re- 
moving thefe  fymptoms,  but  the  fever  at  the  fame  time. 

The  Peruvian  bark  afterwards,  taken  out  of  fome  of  the 
fame  mixture,  effecStually  fecured  the  patient  from  a  re- 
turn of  this  dangerous  malady. 

The  mixture  rarely  adted  as  an  aftringent  in  this  or  any 
other  diforder.  But  when  this  effedl  took  place,  the  in- 
terpofition  of  fome  lenient  purge  was  deemed  neceffary. 

BELLY-AC  H. 

The  belly-ach  with  inflammatory  fymptoms  has  fre- 
quently occured  in  the  courfe  of  my  practice  ;  they  yield- 
ed with  difficulty  to  bleeding,  fmall  dofes  of  emetic  tar- 
tar, a  mercurial  pill,  repeated  dofes  of  caftor  oil,  diluting 
drinks,  with  nitre,  fomentations  and  glyfters.  A  copious 
difcharge  of  foetid  excrement  for  the  moil  part  gives  im- 
mediate relief. 

I  have  obferved  in  many  cafes,  after  mofl:  excruciating 
belly-achs,  that  the  ftools  were  liquid,  white,  fmall  in 
quantity,  and  very  foetid.  The  patients  being  worn  out 
with  pain,  grew  difpondent,  did  not  care  to  fpeak,  fell 
into  cold  clammy  fweats  and  were  very  rel^lefs.  They 
complained  of  an  ill  tafte  in  their  mouths.  Their  tongues 
were  much  furred.  Their  breath  offenfive,  and  they  had 
a  great  propenfity  to  vomit. 

Formerly  I  attempted  the  relief  of  thofe  threatening 
fymptoms  with  the  bark,  in  various  forms,  as  well   as 

O  o  2  claret. 


288        Of    vegetable    ACID    and 

claret,  and  often  faved  my  patient ;  fometimes  however 
I  failed  of  fuccefs.  When  fuch  cafes  fall  now  under  my 
care,  I  have  immediate  recourfe  to  the  antifeptic  mixture  j 
nor  have  I  been  hitherto  difappointed  :  the  ftools  becom- 
ing lefs  frequent  on  the  ufe  of  it,  and  of  a  better  confift- 
ence  ;  the  cold  fweats  alfo  dlfappear,  and  the  fpirits  foon 
return,  together  with  an  appetite  for  food. 

The    putrid   SORE   THROAT. 

In  June  1 770,  the  putrid  fore  throat  made  confiderable 
havock  amoneit  adults  and  children.  It  attacked  thofe  of 
a  lax  habit,  who  for  a  few  days  had  flight  head-achs, 
chillinefs  and  heats  alternately,  and  an  uneafinefs  about 
their  throats,  but  not  fo  much  as  to  hinder  their  fwal- 
lowing. 

On  examination,  the  mouth,  tongue  and  gums  were 
foul  and  flimy ;  the  tonfils  and  uvula  covered  with  white 
fpecks  or  (loughs  ;  the  breath  was  hot  and  offenfive  ;  the 
fkin  felt  hot  and  pungent  to  the  touch;  the  pulfe  low  and 
quick ;  a  diarrhoea  often  attended,  and  the  patients  were 
in  general  much  dejedted. 

Antimonial  wine  with  cordials  and  nourlfhing  diet  fuc- 
ceeded  beft,  till  the  floughs  or  fpots  were  removed  and 
feparated  ;  then  the  bark  completed  the  cure.  When  a 
diarrhoea  accompanied  this  diforder,  I  gave  the  mixture 
with  fuccefs. 

In  all  diforders  where  a  gargle  is  neceffary,  I  make  ufe 
of  the  above  mixture  in  preference  to  any  other ;  and  I 
find  It  fpeedily  cleanfes  the  tongue,  gums  and  fauces,  and 
fweetens  the  breath. 

Where  lemons  or  limes  cannot  be  had,  vinegar  or 
cremor  tartar  may  be  fubftituted  In  their  room. 

From  what  has  been  fiid,  it  is  evident,  that  the  medi- 
cine is  poflelTed  of  confiderable  antifeptic  powers,  and  its 

virtue 


MARINE      SALT.  289^ 

•slrtue  confifls  in  correding  the  peccant  matter  In  the  Ito- 
mach  and  inteftinal  canal. 

All  the  dileafcs  in  which  I  have  given  it,  had  a  putrid 
tendency.  I  ihall  be  happy  to  hear  of  its  fuccefs  in  your 
weftern  hemilphere. 

And  am,  with  efteem, 
Si  r. 

Your  moft  humble  fervant, 
WILLIAM  WRIGHT. 


N°  XXXVIL 

Medical  Hljlory  of  the  Cortex  Ruber,  or  Red  Bark  ;  coni- 
iuunicated  /«?  John  Morgan,  M.  D.  Profeffhr  of  the 
Theory  and  Pra£lice  of  Phyfic  at  Philadelphia.,  and 
F.  R.  S.  London,  i^-c. 


^^'^1^34'  T  HAVE  lately  received  the  following  commu- 
J_  nications  upon  the  Cortex  Ruber,  which  I  have 
found  fo  efficacious  in  the  cure  of  obftinate  remittent  and 
bilious  fevers,  that  I  think  it  my  duty  to  lay  them  before 
this  fociety,  in  hopes  of  fo  valuable  a  medicine  being 
thereby  better  known,  and  introduced  more  generally  in- 
to pradtice.. 

Extra^  of  a  Letter  from  Thomas  S.  Duche,  dated  Lon^ 
don,  Augujl  9,   1783.. 

"  I  was  lately  at  a  ledlure  delivered  at  Guy's  hofpital, 
by  Dr.  Saunders,  upon  the  cure  of  intermittent  fevers, 
and  obferving  the  doQor  fpoke  very  much  in  favour  of 
a  new  fpecies  of  bark  which  he  had  introduced  into  the 
praif^ice  of  phyfic,  I  procured  a  fpecimen  of  it  for  you, 

thinking 


290  MEDICAL  HISTORY  of  the 

thinking  it  might  be  agreeable  to  you  to  hear  of  any  new 
improvements  in  the  heaUng  art.  It  is  called  Red  Bark. 
According  to  his  account  it  poffeffes  fo  much  virtue,  and 
is  of  fuch  certain  efficacy,  that,  compared  with  it,  the  com- 
mon bark  is  an  inert  mafs.  It  contains  a  much  larger 
portion  of  refin,  has  a  much  ftronger  aromatic  tafte  than 
the  common  bark,  and  does  not  require  half  the  quantity 
for  a  dofe.  Amongft  other  particulars,  he  mentioned  the 
following  proof  of  its  fuperior  virtue,  namely,  that  of  this 
medicine,  when  adminiftered  in  a  fimple  cold  infufion, 
any  given  quantity  is  much  ftronger  and  effectual  to  re- 
move the  fever  than  a  chemical  extraft  from  the  fame 
quantity  of  the  other.  I  now  fend  you  a  fpecimen,  by 
which  you  will  be  able  to  make  a  trial  and  form  fome 
judgment  of  its  virtues."  ^ 

T.  S.  DUCHE. 

Soon  after  the  receipt  of  the  foregoing  letter,  I  received 
the  following  valuable  communication  from  Dr.  George 
Davidfon  of  St.  Lucia,  which  it  affords  me  great  pleafure 
to  lay  before  this  fociety. 

St.  Lucia,  Auguft  29,   1783. 
To  Dodor  John  Morgan,  at  Philadelphia. 

Sir, 

IF  the  fubje£l  upon  which  I  have  the  honour  to  write 
you,  fliould  be  found  to  merit  attention,  and  prove  in  any 
reiped;  ufeful  and  advantageous  to  mankind,  I  fliall  eafily 
ftand  excufed  in  addreffing  you,  perlbnally  unacquainted 
as  I  am. 

I  have  by  this  opportunity  fent  a  fmall  fpecimen  of  the 
Cinchona  of  this  iflaud,  refembling  the  Peruvian  bark  in 
its  botanical  character,  and  from  the  trial  made  here  fur- 
paffing  it  in  medical  virtues.  It  is  now  nearly  four  years 
lince  the  Caribaean  bark  was  difcovered  upon  the  heights 

adjoining 


CORTEX  RUBER,  or  RED  BARK.      291 

adjoining  Morne  Fortune,  and  introduced  into  pradice  by 
Dr.  Young,  phyrici4n  to  his  Britannic  majefty's  troops. 
The  freflinefs  of  the  bark,  the  little  attention  beftowed  in 
drying  it,  and  the  large  doles  in  which  it  was  exhibited, 
produced  alarming  fits  of  vomiting  and  purging,  and  de- 
terred us,  at  that  time,  from  the  further  profecution  of  the 
fubjed,  until  the  other  day  that  a  treatife  upon  the  red 
bark,  by  Dr.  Saunders  of  London,  and  a  belief  which  we 
entertained  that  this  was  the  fame  bark  which  he  delcribes, 
induced  us  again  to  make  a  trial  of  it.  Having  properly 
dried  it,  and  given  it  in  the  cold  infufion  with  greater 
caution  and  in  lefs  dofes  than  at  the  firft  eflay,  we  are  now 
happy  in  alluring  the  public,  that  in  moft  inftances  it  has 
not  diilippointed  us.  Still,  however,  notwithftanding  the 
utmoft  care  in  drying  it,  in  fome  cafes  it  ftill  feems  to  re- 
tain its  emetic  and  purgative  qualities,  as  the  flomach  and 
fu-ft  paflages,  in  complaints  here,  are  loaded  with  a  quan- 
tity of  putrid  bile.  Thefe  are  not  its  leaft  valuable  pro* 
perties.  It  will,  however,  be  neceflary  when  thefe  effefts 
are  produced,  to  check  them  afterwards  by  opiates. 

With  regard  to  its  preparations:  I  have  generally  given 
it  in  the  cold  infufion  either  made  with  lime  or  cinnamon 
water.  An  extract  made  with  fpirits  and  water  fits  eafi- 
ly  on  the  ftomach  and  can  be  given  in  larger  quantities. 

In  fome  late  cafes  of  tertians,  where  I  have  been  cal- 
led to  the  patient  during  the  fecond  fit ;  without  watch- 
ing for  its  going  off,  1  have  begun  with  this  bark,  which 
effedlually  cleanfed  the  ftomach  and  bowels,  and  paved 
the  way  for  its  future  adminiilration. 

In  putrid  dyfenteries,  and  in  a  remarkable  fpecies  of 
dyfentery,  conjoined  with  an  intermittent  fever,  which  I 
have  met  with  here,  the  bark  has  done  more  than  all  the 
remedies  which  I  have  feen  employed.  The  purgative 
eftetfts  which  it  produced  enabled  us  to  throw  it  in  earli- 
er; the  hardened  fcybula,  the  fupport  of  the  difeafe,  were 

removed 


292         MEDICAL  HISTORY  of  the 

removed,  the  ftomach  and  bowels  braced  up,  and,  by  the 
interpofition  of  opiates,  the  fpafms  were  removed. 

Having  fent  feveral  fpecimens  of  the  bark  for  a  trial 
to  different  parts  of  the  continent  of  America,  and  parti- 
cularly to  my  worthy  friend  Dodor  Hall  of  Peterfburgh 
Virginia,  I  impatiently  wait  the  refult  of  your  trials,  and 
will  efteem  myfelf  particularly  obliged  by  your  commu- 
nication. If  you  chufe,  I  (hall  fend  you  fome  of  the 
young  trees  planted  in  tubs,  with  fome  of  the  feeds. 

Should  it  be  found  to  anfwer  my  expe£lation,  the  plea- 
fure  refulting  from  the  thoughts  of  havirig  communicat- 
ed fomething  ufeful,  will  be  to  me  ample  enough  recom- 
penfe.     I  have  the  honor  to  be. 

With  the  utmoft  refpeft. 
Your  moft  obedient  humble  fervant, 
GEORGE  DAVIDSON. 

P.  S.  Dr.  Wright  of  Jamaica  (in  fifth  vol.  of  medical 
commentaries,)  defcribes  a  fpecies  of  Cinchona,  with  only 
one  flower  on  a  footftalk;  the  fame  was  likewife  found  at 
the  Havanna.  It  differs  in  that  particular  from  the  old 
bark,  which  refembles  the  St.  Lucia  bark,  in  having  feve- 
ral flowers  on  each  footftalk. 

The folloiv'ing  is  a  Defcription  of  the  Cinchona  Cari- 

BJEA    SaNCTJE    LuCI^. 

The  tree  is  commonly  found  in  ravines,  near  fprings, 
under  the  fliade  of  a  larger  tree.  It  delights  in  places  well 
fliaded,  and  defended  from  the  north-eart  trade  wind. 
The  foil  is  commonly  a  ftiff  red  earth  with  a  clayey  fub- 
ftratum  ;  quantities  of  fmall  beautiful  chryllals,  of  a  regu- 
lar angular  form,  are  found  intermixed. 

The  tree  is  about  the  fize  of  the  cherry  tree  ;  feldom 
exceeding  the  thicknefs  of  the  thigh,  and  twenty-five  feet 
in  height. 

The 


CORTEX  RUBER,  or  RED  BARIL      293 

The  flowers  begin  to  appear  at  the  commencement  of 
the  rainy  feafon  in  beautiful  tufts,  upon  pannicles  branch- 
ed out  in  threes  and  fours.  I  have  never  feen  that  fpecies 
defcribed  by  Jacquin  and  found  at  the  Havannah,  pedun- 
culis  uniflons. 

Before  the  corolla  is  fully  expanded,  and  the  ftamina 
make  their  appearance  without  the  tube  of  the  corolla, 
the  flower  is  white,  but  it  afterwards  turns  to  a  beautiful 
purple.  Then  dropping  ofl-\  the  germen  enlarges  to  the 
llze  of  an  hazle-nut,  oblong  and  round.  It  gradually 
dries,  burlls  in  two,  and  fcatters  the  feeds,  which  fall  to 
the  ground  and  again  take  root. 

The  wood  of  the  tree  is  light,  fpongy,  and  fit  for  no 
ufeful  purpofe.  It  has  not  the  bitter  tafte  of  the  bark. 
The  leaves  are  very  bitter,  and  the  flowers,  feeds,  &c. 
feem  to  poflefs  the  bitternefs  and  aftringency  in  a  more 
eminent  degree. 

An  ounce  of  the  bark  in  fine  powder  infufed  in  a  quart 
of  cold  water  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  infufion  af- 
terwards filtered,  appears  higher  coloured  than  a  decoction 
made  with  double  the  quantity  of  the  old  bark.  The  co- 
lour which  it  ftrikes  with  the  tin^.  Jlor.  martial,  and  J'al 
fnartis,  is  likewife  of  a  deeper  black.  The  fpirituous 
tincture  is  of  a  deep  red  colour,  and  ftrikes  a  deep  black 
by  the  addition  of  the  preparations  of  iron. 

The  tafte  of  the  Cinchona  Caribsea  is  manifeftly  more 
aftringent  than  the  tafte  of  the  old  bark  ;  an  inference  may 
therefore,  ^  priori,  be  made,  that  its  tonic  powers  are 
greater. 

The  quantity  of  refin  which  it  yields  is  much  more 
confiderable,  and  an  extradl  made  with  both  fpirits  and 
■water,  feems  to  poflefs  the  whole  virtues  of  the  bark. 


Pp  To 


[     294     I 


N°  XXXVIII. 

A  Letter  from  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin,  to  Mr.  Al- 
PHONSUS  le  Roy,  Member  of  fc'vernl  Academies^  at 
Paris.     Containing  fiuidry  Maritime  Obfervations. 

At  Sea,  on  board  the  London  Packet,  Capt.  Truxton,  Auguft  1785. 
SIR, 

Read  nee.  "'CT"  O  U  R  learned  writings  on  the  navigation  of 
2, 1785-  Jl^  (.j^g  antients,  which  contain  a  great  deal  of 
curious  information;  and  your  very  ingenious  contrivances 
for  improving  the  modern  fails  [iioilure)  of  which  I  faw 
with  great  pleafure  a  fuccefsful  trial  on  the  river  Seine,  have 
induced  me  to  fubmit  to  your  confideration  and  judgment, 
fome  thoughts  I  have  had  on  the  latter  fubjedt. 

Thofe  mathematicians  who  have  endeavoured  to  im- 
prove the  fwiftnefs  of  veffels,  by  calculating  to  find  the 
form  of  lead  refiftance,  feem  to  have  confidered  a  fhip 
as  a  body  moving  through  one  fluid  only,  the  water;  and 
to  have  given  little  attention  to  the  circumftance  of  her 
movinrr  through  another  fluid,  the  air.  It  is  true  that 
when  a  veflel  fails  right  before  the  wind,  this  circumftance 
is  of  no  importance,  becaufe  the  wind  goes  with  her;  but 
in  every  deviation  from  that  courfe,  the  refiftance  of  the 
air  is  fomething,  and  becomes  greater  in  proportion  as 
that  deviation  increafes.  I  wave  at  prefent  the  confidera- 
tion of  thofe  diff'erent  degrees  of  refiftance  given  by  the 
air  to  that  part  of  the  hull  which  is  above  water,  and  con- 
fine myfelf  to  that  given  to  the  fails;  for  their  motion 
throuuh  the  air  is  refifted  by  the  air,  as  the  motion  of  the 
hull  through  the  water  is  refifted  by  the  water,  though 
with  lefs  force  as  the  air  is  a  lighter  fluid.  And  to  fim- 
plify  the  difcuflion  as  much,  as  polfible,  I  would  ftate  one 
Situation  only,  to  wit,  that  of  the  wind  upon  the  beam, 
thefliip's  courfe  being  diredly  acrofs  the  wind;  and  I  would 

fuppofe 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         295 

fuppofe  the  fail  fet  in  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 
keel,  as  in  the  following  figure ;  wherein 

AB  reprefents  the  hody  of  the  veffel,  CD  the  pj:",'^!. 
pofition  of  the  fail,  EEE  the  diredtion  of  the  "  • 
wind,  MM  the  line  of  motion.  In  obferving  this  figure 
it  will  appear,  that  fo  much  of  the  body  of  the  veiiel  as  is 
immerfed  in  the  water,  mufl,  to  go  forward,  remove  out  of 
its  way  what  water  it  meets  with  between  the  pricked  lines 
FF.  And  the  fail,  to  go  forward,  muft  move  out  of  its 
way  all  the  air  its  whole  dimenfion  meets  with  between 
the  pricked  lines  CO  and  DO.  Thus  both  the  fluids  give 
refiftance  to  the  motion,  each  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  matter  contained  in  the  dimenfion  to  be  removed.  And 
though  the  air  is  vaftly  lighter  than  the  water,  and  there- 
fore more  eafily  removed,  yet  the  dimenfion  being  much 
greater  its  effedt  is  very  confiderable. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  cafe  llated,  the  refiftance  given  by 
the  air  between  thofe  lines  to  the  motion  of  the  fail  is  not 
apparent  to  the  eye,  becaufe  the  greater  force  of  the  wind 
which  ftrikes  it  in  the  dired:ion  EEE,  overpowers  its 
cfFe£t,  and  keeps  the  fail  full  in  the  curve  a,  a,  a,  a,  a. 
But  fuppofe  the  wind  to  ceafe,  and  the  veffel  in  a  calm 
to  be  impelled  with  the  fame  fwiftnefs  by  oars,  the  fail 
^vouId  then  appear  filled  in  the  contrary  curve  b,  b,  b,  b, 
b,  when  prudent  men  would  immediately  perceive  that 
the  air  refilled  its  motion,  and  would  order  it  to  be  taken 
in. 

Is  there  any  pofTible  means  of  diminlihing  this  refift- 
ance, while  the  fame  quantity  of  fail  is  expofed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  wind,  and  therefore  the  fame  force  obtained 
from  it  ?  I  think  there  is,  and  that  it  may  be  done  by  di- 
viding the  fail  into  a  number  of  parts,  and  placing  thofe 
parts  in  a  line  one  behind  the  other  ;  thus  inftead  of  one 
fall  extending  from  C  to  D,  figure  2,  if  four  fails 
containing  together  the  lame  quantity  of  canvas,  were 
placed  as  in  figure  3,  each  having  one  quarter  of  the  di- 

P  p  2  menfions 


296        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

menfions  of  the  great  fail,  and  expofing  a  quarter  of  its 
furface  to  the  viiid,  would  give  a  quarter  of  the  force;  fo 
that  the  whole  force  obtained  from  the  wind  would  be  the 
fame,  while  the  refiftance  from  the  air  would  be  nearly 
reduced  to  the  fpace  between  the  pricked  lines  aba.nd  cd^ 
before  the  foremoft  fail. 

It  may  perhaps  be  doubted  whether  the  refiftance  from 
the  air  would  be  fo  diminiihed  ;  fince  polfibly  each  of  the 
following  fmall  fails  having  alfo  air  before  it,  which  muft 
be  removed,  the  refiftance  on  the  whole  would  be  the 
fame. 

This  is  then  a  matter  to  be  determined  by  experiment. 
I  will  mention  one  that  I  many  years  fince  made  with 
fuccefs  for  another  purpofe;  and  I  will  propofe  another 
fmall  one  eafily  made.  If  that  too  fucceeds,  I  fhould 
think  it  worth  while  to  make  a  larger,  though  at  fome 
expence,  on  a  river  boat ;  and  perhaps  time  and  the  im- 
provements experience  will  aff'ord,  may  make  it  applicable 
with  advantage  to  larger  velTels. 

Having  near  my  kitchen  chimney  a  round  hole  of  eight 
inches  diameter,  through  which  was  a  conftant  fteady 
current  of  air,  increafing  or  diminiflilng  only  as  the  fire 
increafed  or  diminifhed,  I  contrived  to  place  my  jack  fo 
as  to  receive  that  current;  and  taking  off  the  flyers,  I  fix- 
ed in  their  ftead  on  the  fame  pivot  a  round  tin  plate  of 
near  the  fame  diameter  with  the  hole ;  and  having  cut  it 
in  radial  lines  almort  to  the  centre,  fo  as  to  have  fix  equal 
A'anes,  I  gave  to  each  of  them  the  obliquity  of  forty-fiA'e 
degrees.  They  moved  round,  without  the  weight,  by  the 
impreflion  only  of  the  current  of  air,  but  too  flowly  for 
the  purpofe  of  roafting.  I  fufpeded  that  the  air  ftruck  by 
the  back  of  each  vane  might  pofFibly  by  its  refiftance  re- 
tard the  motion;  and  to  try  this,  I  cut  each  of  them  into 
two,  and  I  placed  the  twelve,  each  having  the  faine  obli- 
quity, in  a  line  behind  each  other,  when  I  perceived  a  great 
augmentation  in  its  velocity,  which  encouraged  me  to  di- 
vide 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         297 

vide  them  once  more,  and,  continuing  the  fame  obliquity, 
I  placed  the  twenty-four  behind  each  other  in  a  line, 
when  the  force  of  the  wind  being  the  fame,  and  the  fur- 
face  of  vane  the  fame,  they  moved  round  with  much  great- 
er rapidity,  and  perfectly  anfwered  my  purpofe. 

The  fecond  experiment  that  I  propofe,  is,  to  take  two 
playing  cards  of  the  fame  dimenfions,  and  cut  one  of  them 
tranfverfely  into  eight  equal  pieces  ;  then  with  a  needle 
firing  them  upon  two  threads  one  near  each  end,  and  place 
them  fo  upon  the  threads  that,  when  hung  up,  they  may 
be  one  exadlly  over  the  other,  at  a  diftance  equal  to  their 
breadth,  each  in  a  horizontal  pofition  ;  and  let  a  fmall 
■weight,  fuch  as  a  bird-fhot,  be  hung  under  them,  to  make 
them  fall  in  a  ftraight  line  when  let  loofe.  Sufpend  alfo 
the  whole  card  by  threads  from  its  four  corners,  Snd  hang 
to  it  an  equal  weight,  fo  as  to  draw  it  downwards  when 
let  fall,  its  whole  breadth  preffing  againfl:  the  air.  Let 
thofe  two  bodies  be  attached,  one  of  them  to  one  end  ot 
a  thread  a  yard  long,  the  other  to  the  other  end.  Extend 
a  twine  under  the  ceiling  of  a  room,  and  put  through  it 
at  thirty  inches  diftance  two  pins  bent  in  the  form  of  fifh- 
hooks.  On  thefe  two  hooks  hang  the  two  bodies,  the 
thread  that  conneds  them  extending  parallel  to  the  twine, 
which  thread  being  cut,  they  muft  begin  to  fall  at  the  fame 
inftant.  If  they  take  equal  time  in  falling  to  the  floor,  it 
is  a  proof  that  the  refiilance  of  the  air  is  in  both  cafes 
equal.  If  the  whole  card  requires  a  longer  time,  it  fliows 
that  the  fum  of  the  refinances  to  the  pieces  of  the  cut  card 
is  not  equal  to  the  refiilance  of  the  whole  one*. 

This  principle  fo  far  confirmed,  1  would  proceed  to  make 
a  larger  experiment,  with  a  fliallop,  which  I  would  rig  in 
this  manner. 

AB  is 

*  The  motion  of  the  vcfill  made  it  inconvenient  to  try  this  (iiiiple  experiment,  atfea, 
wlien  the  propofnl  of  it  was  written.  But  it  has  been  tritd  liucs  we  came  on  (hore,  and 
fucceeded  as  the  other. 


298         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

Fi^lfril'  A  B  is  a  long  boom,  from  which  are  holfted  fe- 
ven  jibs,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  each  a  feventh  part  of 
the  whole  dimenfions,  and  as  much  more  as  will  fill  the 
■whole  fpace  when  fet  in  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  fo 
that  they  may  lap  when  going  before  the  wind,  and  hold 
more  wind  when  going  large.  Thus  rigged,  when  go- 
ing right  before  the  wind,  the  boom  fhould  be  brought  at 
right  angles  with  the  keel,  by  means  of  the  flieet  ropes 
C  D,  and  all  the  fails  hauled  flat  to  the  boom. 

Thefe  pofitions  of  boom  and  fails  to  be  varied  as  the 
wind  quarters.  But  when  the  wind  is  on  the  beam,  or 
Avhen  you  would  turn  to  windward,  the  boom  is  to  be 
hauled  right  fore  and  aft,  and  the  fails  trimmed  according 
as  the  wind  is  more  or  lefs  againft  your  courfe. 

It  feems  to  me  that  the  management  of  a  Ihallop  fo  rig- 
ged would  be  very  eafy,  the  fails  being  run  up  and  down 
feparately,  fo  that  more  or  lefs  fail  may  be  made  at  plea- 
fure ;  and  I  imagine,  that  there  being  full  as  much  fail 
expofed  to  the  force  of  the  wind  which  impells  the  veifel 
in  its  courfe,  as  if  the  whole  were  in  one  piece,  and  the 
refiftance  of  the  dead  air  againft  the  forefide  of  the  fail  be- 
ing diminiftied,  the  advantage  of  fwiftnefs  would  be  very 
confiderable ;  befides  that  the  veflel  would  lie  nearer  the 
wind. 

Since  we  are  on  the  fubje£t  of  improvements  in  navi- 
gation, permit  me  to  detain  you  a  little  longer  with  a  fmall 
relative  obfervation.  Being,  in  one  of  my  voyages,  with 
ten  merchant-fhips  under  convoy  of  a  frigate  at  anchor  in 
Torbay,  waiting  for  a  wind  to  go  to  the  weft  ward  ;  it 
came  fair,  but  brought  in  with  it  a  confiderable  fwcll.  A 
fignal  was  given  for  weighing,  and  we  put  to  fea  all  to- 
gether; but  three  of  the  fliips  left  their  anchors,  their  ca- 
bles parting  juft  as  the  anchors  came  a-peak.  Our  cable 
held,  and  we  got  up  our  anchor  ;  but  the  fhocks  the  Ihip 
felt  before  the  anchor  got  loofe  from  the  ground,  made 
me  refled  on  what  might  poffibly  have  cauied  the  break- 
ing 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         299 

ing  of  the  other  cables ;  and  I  imagined  it  might  be  the 
Ihort  bending  of  the  cable  juft  without  the  haufe-hole, 
from  a  horizontal  to  an  almoft  vertical  pofition,  and  the 
fudden  violent  jerk  it  receives  by  the  rifing  of  the  head  of 
the  ihip  on  the  fwell  of  a  wave  while  in  that  pofition. 
For  example,  fuppofe  a  veflel  hove  up  fo  as  to  have  her 
head  nearly  over  her  anchor,  which  ftill  keeps  Its  hold, 
perhaps  in  a  tough  bottom;  if  it  were  calm,  the  cable  flill 
out  would  form  nearly  a  perpendicular  line,  meafuring  the 
diftance  between  the  haufe-hole  and  the  anchor ;  but  If 
there  is  a  fwell,  her  head  in  the  trough  of  the  fea  will  fall 
below  the  level,  and  when  lifted  on  the  wave  will  be  as 
rnuch  above  it.  In  the  firfi:  cafe  the  cable  will  hang  loofe 
and  bend  perhaps  as  in  figure  5.  In  the  fecond  cafe  figure 
6,  the  cable  will  be  drawn  ftraight  with  a  jerk,  muft  fuilain 
the  whole  force  of  the  rlfing  (liip,  and  muft  either  loofen  the 
anchor,  refift  the  riling  force  of  the  fhip,  or  break.  But 
why  does  it  break  at  the  haufe-hole  ? 

Let  us  fuppofe  it  a  cable  of  three  inches  diameter,  and 
reprefented  by  figure  7.  If  this  cable  is  to  be  bent  round  the 
corner  A,  it  is  evident  that  either  the  part  of  the  triangle 
contained  between  the  letters  a,  b,  c,  muft  ftretch  confider- 
ably,  and  thofe  moft  that  are  neareft  the  furface  ;  or  that 
the  parts  between  d,  e,  f,  muft  be  com  prefixed  ;  or  both, 
w'hich  moft  probably  happens.  In  this  cafe  the  lower  half 
of  the  thicknefs  aff'ords  no  ftrength  againft  the  jerk,  it  not 
being  ftrained,  the  upper  half  bears  the  whole,  and  the 
yarns  near  the  upper  furface  belns;  firft  and  moft  ftrained, 
break  firft,  and  the  next  yarns  follow  ;  for  in  this  bent 
fituation  they  cannot  bear  the  ftrain  all  together,  and  each 
contribute  its  ftrength  to  the  whole,  as  they  do  when  the 
cable  is  ftrained  in  a  ftraight  line. 

To  remedy  this,  methinks  it  would  be  well  to  have  a 
kind  of  large  pulley  wheel,  fixed  in  the  haule-hole,  fup- 
pofe of  two  feet  diameter,  over  which  the  cable  might 
pals  ;  and  being  there  bent  gradually  to  the  round  of  the 

wheel,. 


300        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

wheel,  would  thereby  be  more  equally  ftrained,  and  better 
able  to  bear  the  jerk,  which  may  fave  the  anchor,  and  by 
that  means  in  the  courfe  of  the  voyage  may  happen  to 
fave  the  fhip. 

One  maritime  obfervation  more  fhall  finifti  this  letter. 
I  have  been  a  reader  of  news-papers  now  near  leventy 
years,  and  I  think  few  years  pafs  without  an  accoimt  of 
fome  vefl'el  met  with  at  fea,  with  no  foul  living  on  board, 
and  fo  many  feet  of  water  in  her  hold,  which  veffel  has 
neverthelefs  been  faved  and  brought  into  port :  and  when 
not  met  with  at  fea,  fuch  forfaken  vefTels  have  often  come 
afhore  on  fome  coaft.  The  crews  who  have  taken  to  their 
boats  and  thus  abandoned  fuch  veflels,  are  fometimes  met 
with  and  taken  up  at  fea  by  other  fhips,  fometimes  reach  a 
coaft,  and  are  fometimes  never  heard  of.  Thofe  that  give 
an  account  of  quitting  their  vefTels,  generally  fay,  that  flie 
fprung  a  leak,  that  they  pumped  for  fome  time,  that  the 
water  continued  to  rife  upon  them,  and  that  defpairing 
to  fave  her,  they  had  quitted  her  left  they  ftiould  go  down 
with  her.  It  feems  by  the  event  that  this  fear  was  not 
always  well  founded,  and  I  have  endeavoured  to  guefs  at 
the  reafon  of  the  people's  too  hafty  difcouragement. 

When  a  veflel  fprings  a  leak  near  her  bottom,  the  wa- 
ter enters  with  all  the  force  given  by  the  weight  of  the 
column  of  water,  without,  which  force  is  in  proportion  to 
the  difference  of  level  between  the  water  without  and  that 
within.  It  enters  therefore  with  more  force  at  firft,  and 
in  greater  quantity,  than  it  can  afterwards  when  the  water 
within  is  higher.  The  bottom  of  the  veffel  too  is  nar- 
rower, fo  that  the  fame  quantity  of  water  coming  into 
that  narrow  part,  rifes  fafter  than  when  the  fpace  for  it 
to  flow  in  is  larger.  This  helps  to  terrify.  But  as  the 
quantity  entering  is  lefs  and  lefs  as  the  furfaces  without 
and  within  become  more  nearly  equal  in  height,  the  pumps 
that  could  not  keep  the  v  ater  from  rifing  at  firft,  might  af- 
terwards be  able  to  prevent  its  rifing  hi^^her,  and  the  people 

might 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.        301 

might  have  remained  on  board  in  fafety,  without  hazard- 
ing themfelves  in  an  open  boat  on  the  wide  ocean.  (Fig.  8.) 
Befides  the  greater  equahty  in  the  height  of  the  two 
furfaces,  there  may  fometimes  be  other  caules  that  retard 
the  farther  fmking  of  a  leaky  veflel.  The  rifing  water 
within  may  arrive  at  quantities  of  light  wooden  work, 
empty  cherts,  and  particularly  empty  water  cafks,  which 
if  fixed  fo  as  not  to  float  themfelves  may  help  to  fuftain 
her.  Many  bodies  which  compofe  a  fhip's  cargo  may  be 
fpecifically  lighter  than  water,  all  thefe  when  out  of  wa- 
ter are  an  additional  weight  to  that  of  the  fhip,  and  fhe  is 
in  proportion  prefl'ed  deeper  into  the  water;  but  as  foon 
as  thefe  bodies  are  immerfed,  they  weigh  no  longer  on  the 
fliip,  but  on  the  contrary,  if  fixed,  they  help  to  fupport 
her,  in  proportion  as  they  are  fpecifically  lighter  than  the 
water.  And  it  fhould  be  remembered,  that  the  largeit 
body  of  a  fhip  may  be  fo  balanced  in  the  water,  that  an 
ounce  lefs  or  more  of  weight  may  leave  her  at  the  furface 
or  fink  her  to  the  bottom.  There  are  alfo  certain  heavy  car- 
goes, that  when  the  water  gets  at  them  are  continually 
dirtblving,  and  thereby  lightening  the  veUel,  fuch  as  fait 
and  fugar.  And  as  to  water  cafks  mentioned  above,  fince 
the  quantity  of  them  muft  be  great  in  fhips  of  war  where 
the  number  of  men  confume  a  great  deal  of  water  every 
day,  if  it  had  been  made  a  conftant  rule  to  bung  them  up 
as  fart  as  they  were  emptied,  and  to  difpofe  the  empty 
cafks  in  proper  fituations,  I  am  perfuaded  that  many  fhips 
which  have  been  funk  in  engagements,  or  have  gone  down 
afterwards,  might  with  the  unhappy  people  have  been 
faved  ;  as  well  as  many  of  thofe  which  in  the  laft  war 
foundered,  and  were  never  heard  of.  While  on  this  to- 
pic of  finking,  one  cannot  help  recolle£ling  the  well  known 
pra£lice  of  the  Chinefe,  to  divide  the  hold  of  a  great  fliip 
into  a  number  of  feparate  chambers  by  partitions  tight 
caulked,  (of  which  you  gave  a  model  in  your  boat  upon 
the  Seine)  fo  that  if  a  leak  fliould  fpring  in  one  of  them 

Q^q  the 


302         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS: 

the  others  are  not  affefted  by  it;  and  though  that  cham'-- 
ber  fhould  fill  to  a  level  with  the  fea,  it  would  not  be  fuf- 
ficient  to  fink  the  veflc-l.  We  have  not  imitated  this  prac- 
tice. Some  little  difadvantage  it  might  occaiion  in  the 
ftowage  is  perhaps  one  r^afon,  though  that  I  think  might 
be  more  than  compenfated  by  an  abatement  in  the  infu- 
rance  that  would  be  reafonable,  and  by  a  higher  price 
taken  of  paffengers,  who  would  rather  prefer  going  in  fuch 
a  velTel.  But  our  feafaring  people  are  brave,  defpife  dan- 
ger, and  rejed:  fuch  precautions  of  fafety,  being  cowards 
only  in  one  fenfe,   that  oi fearing  to  be  thought  afraid. 

I  promifed  to  finifh  my  letter  with  the  laft  obfervation, 
but  the  garrulity  of  the  old  man  has  got  hold  of  me,  and 
as  I  may  never  have  another  occafion  of  writing  on  this 
fubjedl,  I  think  I  may  as  well  now,  once  for  all,  empty 
my  nautical  budget,  and  give  you  all  the  thoughts  that 
have  in  my  various  long  voyages  occurred  to  me  relating 
to  navigation.  I  am  fure  that  in  you  they  will  meet  with 
a  candid  judge,  who  will  excufe  my  miftakes  on  account 
of  my  good  intention. 

There  are  fix  accidents  that  may  occafion  the  lofs  of 
fhips  at  fea.  We  have  confidered  one  of  them,  that  of 
foundering  by  a  leak.  The  other  five  are,  i.  Overfetting 
by  fudden  flaws  of  wind,  or  by  carrying  fail  beyond  the 
bearing.  2.  Fire  by  accident  or  careleifnefs.  3.  A  heavy 
ftroke  of  lightning,  making  a  breach  in  the  Ihip,  or 
firing  the  powder.  4.  Meeting  and  ihocking  with  other 
fhips  in  the  night.  5.  Meeting  in  the  night  with  iflands 
of  ice. 

To  that  of  overfetting,  privateers-  in  their  firft  cruize 
have,  as  far  as  has  fallen  within  my  knowledge  or  infor- 
mation, been  more  fubjed  than  any  other  kind  of  vefl'els. 
The  double  defire  of  being  able  to  overtake  a  weaker  flying 
enemy,  or  toefcapewhenpurfued  bya  ftronger,  has  induced 
the  owners  to  overmaft  their  cruizers,  and  to  fpread  too 
much  canvas ;  and  the  great  number  of  men,  many  of 

them. 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         303 

'tliem  not  leamen,  who  being  upon  deck  when  a  fliip  heels 
fuddenly  are  huddled  down  to  leeward,  and  increafe  by  their 
weight  the  cfFeitl  of  the  wind.  This  therefore  fliould  be 
■more  attended  to  and  guarded  againft,  efpecially  as  the 
advantage  of  lofty  mails  is  problematical.  For  the  upper 
fails  have  greater  power  to  lay  a  veifel  more  on  her  fide, 
which  is  not  the  moft  advantageous  pofition  for  going 
■fwiftly  through  the  water.  And  hence  it  is  that  veflels 
which  have  loft  their  lofty  marts,  and  been  able  to  make 
little  more  lail  afterwards  than  permitted  the  fliip  to  fail 
upon  an  even  keel,  have  made  fo  much  way,  even  under 
jury  malls,  as  to  lurprize  the  mariners  themfclves.  But 
there  is  befides,  fomething  in  the  modern  form  of  our 
fliips  that  feems  as  if  calculated  exprefsly  to  allow  their 
overfetting  more  eafily.  The  fides  of  a  fliip  inftead  of 
fpreading  out  as  they  formerly  did  in  the  upper  works, 
are  of  late  years  turned  in,  fo  as  to  make  the  body  nearly- 
round,  and  more  refembling  a  cafk.  I  do  not  know  what 
the  advantages  of  this  conltrudion  are,  except  that  fuch 
fhips  are  not  fo  eafily  boarded.  To  me  it  feems  a  contri- 
vance to  have  lefs  room  in  a  fliip  at  nearly  the  fame  ex- 
pence.  For  it  is  evident  that  the  fame  timber  and  plank 
confumed  in  railing  the  fides  from  a  to  b,  and  from  d  to  c, 
would  have  raifed  them  from  a  to  e,  and  from  d  to  f,  fig.  n. 
In  this  form  all  the  fpaces  between  e,  a,  b,  and  c,  d,  f,  would 
have  been  gained,  the  deck  would  have  been  larger,  the 
men  would  have  had  more  room  to  a£t,  and  not  have 
Ifood  fo  thick  in  the  way  of  the  enemy's  fhot;  and  the 
velTel  the  more  fhe  was  laid  down  on  her  fide,  the  more 
bearing  flie  would  meet  with,  and  more  effedlual  to  fup- 
port  her,  as  being  farther  from  the  center.  Whereas  in 
the  prel'cnt  form,  her  ballart  makes  the  chief  part  of  her 
bearing,  without  which  Ihe  would  turn  in  the  fea  almofl 
as  eafily  as  a  barrel.  More  ballaft  by  this  means  becomes 
neceflary,  and  that  finking  a  veffel  deeper  in  the  water 
occalioas  more  refiftance  to  her  going  through  it.     The 

Qjl  2  Bermudian 


304         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

Bermudlan  floops  ftill  keep  with  advantage  to  the  old' 
fpreading  form.  The  iflanders  in  the  great  Pacific  ocean, 
though  they  have  no  large  fliips,  are  the  moft  expert  boat- 
failors  in  the  world,  navigating  that  fea  i'afely  with  their 
proas,  which  they  prevent  overfetting  by  various  means. 
Their  failing  proas  tor  this  purpofe  have  outrig2;ers  gene- 
rally to  windward,  above  the  water,  on  which  one  or 
more  men  are  placed  to  move  occafionally  further  from 
or  nearer  to  the  veffel  as  the  wind  frefhens  or  flackens. 
But  Tome  have  their  outriggers  to  leeward,  which  refting 
on  the  water  fupport  the  boat  fo  as  to  keep  her  upright 
when  prelfed  down  by  the  wind.  Their  boats  moved  by 
oars  or  rather  by  paddles,  are,  for  long  voyages,  fixed  two 
together  by  crofs  bars  of  wood  that  keep  them  at  fome 
diftance  from  each  other,  and  fo  render  their  overfetting 
next  to  impoflible.  How  far  this  may  be  prafticable  in 
larger  veflels,  we  have  not  yet  fufficient  experience.  I 
know  of  but  one  trial  made  in  Europe,  which  was  about 
one  hundred  years  fince  by,  Sir  William  Petty.  Rebuilt  a 
double  veffel,  to  ferve  as  a  pacquet  boat  between  England 
and  Ireland.  Her  model  ftill  exifts  in  the  mufeum  of  the 
Royal  Society,  where  I  have  feen  it.  By  the  accounts  we 
have  of  her,  fhe  anfwered  well  the  purpofe  of  her  con- 
flruftion,  making  feveral  voyages;  and  though  wrecked 
at  laft  by  a  ftorm,  the  misfortune  did  not  appear  owing 
to  her  particular  conflrudion,  fince  many  other  veffels  of 
the  common  form  were  wrecked  at  the  fame  time.  The 
advantage  of  fuch  a  veffel  is :  That  fhe  needs  no  ballaff, 
therefore  fwims  either  lighter  or  will  carry  more  goods; 
and  that  paffengers  are  not  fo  much  incommoded  by  her 
rolling:  to  which  may  be  added,  that  if  fhe  is  to  defend 
herfelf  by  her  cannon,  they  will  probably  have  more  ef- 
fect, being  kept  more  generally  in  a  horizontal  pofition, 
than  thofe  in  common  veffels.  I  think  however  that  it 
would  be  an  improvement  of  that  model,  to  make  the  fides 

which 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         30-5 

which  are  oppofed  toeach  other  perfedly  parallel,  though 
the  other  Ikles  are  formed  as  in  common  thus,  figure  10. 

The  huilding  of  a  double  fhip  would  indeed  be  more 
expenfive  in  proportion  to  her  burthen;  and  that  perhaps 
is  fufiicient  to  diicourage  the  method. 

The  accident  of  fire  is  generally  well  guarded  againft 
by  the  prudent  captain's  ftriti  orders  againft  fmoking  be- 
tween decks,  or  carrying  a  candle  there  out  of  a  lanthorn. 
But  there  is  one  dangerous  pracftice  which  frequent  terrible 
accidents  have  not  yet  been  fufficient  to  aboliili  ;  that  of 
carrying  ftore-fpirits  to  fea  in  cafks.  Two  large  fhips,  the 
Seraphis  and  the  Duke  of  Athol,  one  an  Eaft-Indiaman, 
the  other  a  frigate,  have  been  burnt  within  thefe  two  laft 
years,  and  many  lives  miferably  deftroyed,  by  drawing 
fpirits  out  of  a  cafk  near  a  candle.  It  is  high  time  to  make 
it  a  general  rule,  that  all  the  fhip's  ftore  of  fpirits  fhould 
be  carried  in  bottles. 

The  misfortune  by  a  ftroke  of  lightning  I  have  in  my 
former  writings  endeavoured  to  ihow  a  method  of  guard- 
ing againft,  by  a  chain  and  pointed  rod,  extending,  when 
run  up,  from  above  the  top  of  the  maft  to  the  fea.  Thefe 
inftruments  are  now  made  and  fold  at  a  reafonable  prigs 
by  Nairne  and  Co.  in  London,  and  there  are  feveral  in- 
ftances  of  fuccefs  attending  the  ufe  of  them.  They  are 
kept  in  a  box,  and  may  be  run  up  and  fixed  in  about  five 
ininutes,  on  the  apparent  approach  of  a  thunder  guft. 

Of  the  meeting  and  fhocking  with  other  fhips  in  the 
night,  I  have  known  two  inftances  in  voyages  between 
London  and  America.  In  one  both  fhips  arrived  though 
much  damaged,  each  reporting  their  belief  that  the  other 
muft  have  gone  to  the  bottom.  In  the  other,  only  one 
got  to  port  ;  the  other  was  never  afterwards  heard  of. 
Thefe  inftances  happened  many  years  ago,  when  the  com- 
merce between  Europe  and  America  was  not  a  tenth  part 
of  what  it  is  at  prefent,  fliips  of  courfe  thinner  fcattered, 
and  the  chance  of  meeting  proportionably  lefs.    It  has  long 

been 


^3o{S        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

been  the  practice  to  keep  a  look-out  before  in  the  channel, 
Init  at  fea  it  has  been  negledted.  If  it  is  not  at  prefent 
thought  worth  while  to  take  that  precaution,  it  will  in 
time  become  of  more  confequence ;  fince  the  number  of 
fliips  at  fea  is  continually  augmenting.  A  drum  frequent- 
ly beat  or  a  bell  rung  in  a  dark  night,  might  help  to  pre- 
vent fuch  accidents. 

Iflands  of  ice  are  frequently  feen  off  the  banks  of  New- 
foundland, by  fliips  going  between  North-America  and 
Europe.  In  the  day-time  they  are  eafily  avoided,  unlefs 
in  a  very  thick  fog.  I  remember  two  inftances  of  fhips 
running  againft  them  in  the  night.  The  firft  loft  her 
bowfprit,  but  received  little  other  damage.  The  other 
ftruck  where  the  warmth  of  the  fea  had  wafted  the  ice 
next  to  it,  and  a  part  hung  over  above.  This  perhaps 
faved  her,  for  flie  was  under  great  way  ;  but  the  upper 
part  of  the  cliff  taking  her  foretopmaft,  broke  the  ftiock, 
though  it  carried  away  the  maft.  She  difengaged  herfelf 
with  fome  difficulty,  and  got  fafe  into  port ;  but  the  acci- 
dent fliows  the  polfibility  of  other  fliips  being  wrecked 
and  funk  by  ftriking  thofe  vaft  maffes  of  ice,  of  which  I 
have  feen  one  that  we  judged  to  be  feventy  feet  high  above 
the  water,  confequently  eight  times  as  much  under  water; 
and  it  is  another  reafon  for  keeping  a  good  look-out  before, 
though  far  from  any  coaft  that  may  threaten  danger. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  people  we  confider  as  favages, 
have  improved  the  art  ot  lailing-  and  rowing-boats  in  fe- 
veral  points  beyond  what  we  can  pretend  to.  We  have 
no  failing  boats  equal  to  the  flying  proas  of  the  fouth  feas, 
no  rowing  or  paddling  boat  equal  to  that  of  the  Green- 
landers  for  fwiftnefs  and  fafety.  The  birch  canoes  of  the 
North-American  Indians  havealfo  fome  advantageous  pro- 
perties. They  are  fo  light  that  two  men  may  carry  one 
of  them  over  land,  which  is  capable  of  carrying  a  dozen 
upon  the  water ;  and  in  heeling  they  are  not  fo  fubjedl 
to  take  in  water   as  our   boats,  the  fides  of  which  are. 

loweft 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         307 

Fowefl:  in  the  middle  where  it  is  mofi:  likely  to  enteiv 
this  being  highefl:  in  that  part,  as   in  figure    i  i. 

The  Chinefe  are  an  enlightened  people,  the  moft  anti- 
ently  civilized  of  any  exifting,  and  their  arts  are  antient, 
a  prefumption  in  their  favour:  their  method  of  rowing 
their  boats  differs  from  ours,  the  oars  being  worked  either  f 

two  a-ftern  as  we  fcull,  or  on  the  fides  with  the  fame  kind 
of  motion,  being  hung  parallel  to  the  keel  on  a  rail  and 
always  ading  in  the  water,  not  perpendicular  to  the  fide 
as  ours  are,  nor  lifted  out  at  every  itroke,  which  is  a  lofs 
of  time,  and  the  boat  in  the  interval  lofes  motion.  They 
{cc  our  manner,  and  we  theirs,  but  neither  are  difpofed  to 
learn  of  or  copy  the  other. 

To  the  feveral  means  of  moving  boats  mentioned  above, 
may  be  added  the  fingular  one  lately  exhibited  at  Javelle, 
on  the  Seine  below  Paris,  where  a  clumfy  boat  was  mov- 
ed acrols  that  river  in  three  minutes  by  rowing,  not  in  the 
water,  but  in  the  air,  that  is,  by  whirling  round  a  fet  of 
windmill  vanes  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis,  parallel  to  the 
keel,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  the  boat.  The  axis  was 
bent  into  an  elbow  at  the  end,  by  the  help  of  which  it  was 
turned  by  one  man  at  a  time.  I  faw  the  operation  at  a 
diftance.  The  four  vanes  appeared  to  be  about  five  feet 
long,  and  perhaps  two  and  a  half  wide.  The  weather 
•was  calm.  The  labour  appeared  to  be  great  for  one  man, 
as  the  two  feveral  times  relieved  each  other.  But  the  ac- 
tion upon  the  air  by  the  oblique  furfaces  of  the  vanes  mull 
have  been  conlidcrable,  as  the  motion  of  the  boat  aiipear- 
ed  tolerably  quick  going  and  returning  ;  and  fhe  returned 
to  the  fame  place  from  whence  fhe  firft  fet  out,  notwith- 
ftanding  the  current.  This  machine  is  fince  applied  to  the 
moving  of  air  balloons  :  An  inftrument  fimilar  may  be 
contrived  to  move  a  boat  by  turning  under  water. 

Several   mechanical  projedors  have  at  different  times 
propofed  to  give  motion  to  boats,   and  even  to  fliips,  by 
means  of  circular  rowing,  or  paddles  placed  on  the  circum- 
ference. 


3o8         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

ferencc  of  wheels  to  be  turned  conftantly  on  each  fide  of 
the  veffel ;  but  this  method,  though  frequently  tried,  has 
never  been  found  fo  effeftual  as  to  encourage  a  continuance 
of  the  pradice.  I  do  not  know  that  the  reafon  has  hither- 
to been  given.  Perhaps  it  may  be  this,  that  great  part  of 
the  force  employed  contributes  little  to  the  motion.  For 
inftance,  (fig.  12.)  of  the  four  paddles  a,  b,  c,  d,  all  under 
water,  and  turning  to  move  a  boat  from  X  to  Y,  c  has  the 
moft  power,  b  nearly  though  not  quite  as  much,  their 
motion  being  nearly  horizontal  ;  but  the  force  employed 
in  moving  a,  is  confumed  in  prefTmg  almoft  downright 
upon  the  vv'ater  till  it  comes  to  the  place  of  b  ;  and  the 
force  employed  in  moving  d  is  confumed  in  lifting  the 
water  till  d  arrives  at  the  furface ;  by  which  means  much 
of  the  labour  is  loft.  It  is  true,  that  by  placing  the  wheels 
higher  out  of  the  water,  this  wafte  labour  will  be  diminiih- 
ed  in  a  calm,  but  where  a  fea  runs,  the  wheels  muft  un- 
avoidably be  often  dipt  deep  in  the  waves,  and  the  turn- 
ing of  them  thereby  rendered  very  laborious  to  little 
purpofe. 

Among  the  various  means  of  giving  motion  to  a  boat, 
that  of  M.  Bernoulli  appears  one  of  the  moft  fingular, 
which  was  to  have  fixed  in  the  boat  a  tube  in  the  form  of 
an  L,  the  upright  part  to  have  a  funnel-kind  of  opening 
at  top,  convenient  for  filling  the  tube  with  water;  which 
defcending  and  paffing  through  the  lower  horizontal  part, 
and  iffuing  in  the  middle  of  the  ftern,  but  under  the  fur- 
face  of  the  river,  fhould  pufti  the  boat  forward.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  force  of  the  defcending  water  would 
have  a  confiderable  effe£l,  greater  in  proportion  to  the 
height  from  which  it  defcended  ;  but  then  it  is  to  be  confi- 
dered,  that  every  bucket-full  pumped  or  dipped  up  into 
the  boat,  from  its  fide  or  through  its  bottom,  muft  have  its 
I'is  inertice  overcome  fo  as  to  receive  the  motion  of  the 
boat,  before  it  can  come  to  give  motion  by  its  defcent; 
and  that  will  be  a  dedudlion  from  the  moving  power. 

To 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.        309 

To  remedy  this,  I  would  propofe  the  addition  of  another 
fuch  L  pipe,  and  that  they  fliould  ftand  back  to  back  in 
the  boat  thus,  figure  13.  the  forward  one  being  worked 
as  a  pump,  and  lucking  in  the  water  at  the  head  of  the 
boat,  would  draw  it  forward  while  pufhed  in  the  fame  di- 
rection by  the  force  at  the  ftern.  And  after  all  it  fhould 
be  calculated  whether  the  labour  of  pumping  would  be 
lefs  than  that  of  rowing.  A  fire-engine  might  poflibly  in 
fome  cafes  be  applied  in  this  operation  with  advantage. 

Perhaps  this  labour  of  raifing  water  might  be  fpared, 
and  the  whole  force  of  a  man  applied  to  the  moving  of  a 
boat  by  the  ufe  of  air  inftead  of  water ;  fuppofe  the  boat 
conftrufted  in  this  form,  figure  14.  A,  a  tube  round  or 
fquare  of  two  feet  diameter,  in  which  a  pifton  may  move 
tip  and  down.  The  pifton  to  have  valves  in  it,  opening 
inwards  to  admit  air  when  the  pifton  rifes;  and  ftiutting, 
■when  it  is  forced  down  by  means  of  the  lever  B  turning 
on  the  center  C.  The  tube  to  have  a  valve  D,  to  open 
■when  the  pifton  is  forced  down,  and  let  the  air  pafs  out  at 
E,  which  ftriking  forcibly  againft  the  water  abaft  muft 
pulh  the  boat  forward.  If  there  is  added  an  air-veflel  F 
properly  valved  and  placed,  the  force  would  continue  to 
aft  while  a  frefli  ftroke  is  taken  with  the  lever.  The  boat- 
man might  ftand  with  his  back  to  the  ftern,  and  putting  his 
hands  behind  him,  work  the  motion  by  taking  hold  of  the 
crofs  bar  at  B,  while  another  ftiould  fteer ;  or  if  he  had  two 
fuch  pumps,  one  on  each  fide  of  the  ftern,  with  a  lever  for 
•each  hand,  he  might  fteer  himfelf  by  working  occafionally 
more  or  harder  with  either  hand,  as  watermen  now  do  with 
a  pair  of  fculls.  There  is  no  pofition  in  which  the  body  of 
a  man  can  exert  more  ftrength  than  in  pulling  right  upwards. 

To  obtain  more  fwiftnefs,  greafing  the  bottom  ot  a  vef- 
fel  is  fometimes  ufed,  and  with  good  efFeft.  I  do  not 
know  that  any  writer  has  hitherto  attempted  to  explain 
this.  At  firft  fight  one  would  imagine,  that  though  the 
fri<3;ion  of  a  hard  body  Hiding  on  another  hard  body,  and 

R  r  the 


3I.O         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.. 

the  refiftance  occafioned  by  that  fridlion,  might  be  dlmi-- 
niflicd  by  piUthig  greafe  between  them,  yet  that  a  body 
Aiding  on  a  fluid,  I'uch  as  water,  Ihould  have  no  need  of 
nor  receive  any  advantage  from  fuch  greafing.  But  the 
fa£t  is  not  difputed.  And  the  reafon  perhaps  may  be  this. 
The  particles  of  water  have  a  mutual  attraction,  called  the 
attraction  of  adhefion.  Water  alio  adheres  to  wood,  and 
to  many  other  fubftances,  but  not  to  greafe:  On  the 
contrary  they  have  a  mutual  repulfion,  fo  that  it  is  a 
queftion  v/hether  when  oil  is  poured  on  water,  they  ever 
actually  touch  each  other ;  for  a  drop  of  oil  upon  water, 
inftcad  of  flicking  to  the  fpot  where  it  falls,  as  it  would  if 
it  fell  on  a  looking-glafs,  fpreads  inftantly  to  an  immenfe 
diftance  in  a  film  extremely  thin,  which  it  could  not  eafily 
do  if  it  touched  and  rubbed  or  adhered  even  in  a  fmall  de- 
gree to  the  furface  of  the  water.  Now  the  adhefive  force  of. 
water  to  itfelf,  and  to  other  fubftances,  may  be  eftimated. 
from  the  weight  of  it  neceffary  to  feparate  a  drop,  which 
adheres,  while  growing,  till  it  has  weight  enough  to  force 
the  feparation  and  break  the  drop  off.  Let  us  fuppofe  the 
drop  to  be  the  fize  of  a  pea,  then  there  will  be  as  many 
of  thefe  adhefions  as  there  are  drops  of  that  fize  touching 
the  bottom  of  a  vefTel,  and  thefe  muft  be  broken  by  the 
moving  power,  every  ftep  of  her  motion  that  amounts  to 
a  drop's  breadth  :  And  there  being  no  fuch  adhefions  to 
break  between  the  water  and  a  greafed  bottom,  may  oc^ 
cafion  the  difference. 

So  much  refpeCting  the  motion  of  veflels.  But  we  have 
fometimes  occafion  to  flop  their  motion  ;  and  if  a  bottom 
is  near  enough  we  can  caft  anchor  :  Where  there  are  no 
foundings,  we  have  as  yet  no  means  to  prevent  driving  in 
a  ftorm,  but  by  lying-to,  which  ftill  permits  driving  at 
the  rate  of  about  two  miles  an  hour;  fo  that  in  a  ftorm 
continuing  fifty  hours,  which  is  not  an  uncornmon  cafe, 
the  ftiip  may  drive  one  hundred  miles  out  of  her  courfe ; 
and  fliould  Ihe  in  that  diftance  meet  with  a  lee  fliore,  fhe 
may  be  loft.  To 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.        311 

To  prevent  this  driving  to  leeward  in  deep  water,  a 
fwimming  anchor  is  wanting,  which  ought  to  have  thefe 
properties. 

1.  It  fhould  have  a  furface  fo  large  as  being  at  the  end 
of  a  haufer  in  the  water,  and  placed  perpendicularly, 
fhould  hold  fo  much  of  it,  as  to  bring  the  Ihip's  head  to 
the  wind,  in  which  fituation  the  wind  has  leait  power  to 
drive  her. 

2.  It  fhould  be  able  by  its  refiftance  to  prevent  the  fliip's 
receiving  way. 

3.  It  fhould  be  capable  of  being  fituated  below  the  heave 
of  the  fea,  but  not  below  the  undertow. 

4.  It  fhould  not  take  up  much  room  in  the  fliip. 

5.  It  Ihould  be  eafily  thrown  out,  and  put  into  its  pro- 
per fituation. 

6.  It  fhould  be  eafy  to  take  in  again,  and  flow  away. 
An  ingenious  old  mariner  whom  I  formerly  knew,  pro- 

pofed  as  a  fwimming  anchor  for  a  large  fliip  to  have  a  item 
of  wood  twenty-five  feet  long  and  four  inches  fquare,  with 
four  boards  of  18,  16,  14,  and  12,  feet  long,  and  one  foot 
wide,  the  boards  to  have  their  fubftance  thickened  feveral 
inches  in  the  middle  by  additional  wood,  and  to  have  each 
s.  four  inch  fquare  hole  through  its  middle,  to  permit  its 
being  flipt  on  occafionally  upon  the  ftem,  and  at  right 
angles  with  it ;  where  all  being  placed  and  fixed  at  four 
feet  diflance  from  each  other,  it  would  have  the  appear- 
ance of  the  old  mathematical  inftrument  called  a  foreftafF. 
This  thrown  into  the  fea,  and  held  by  a  haufer  veered  out 
to  fome  length,  he  conceived  would  bring  a  veflel  up,  and 
prevent  her  driving,  and  when  taken  in  might  be  Itowed 
away  by  feparating  the  boards  from  the  ftem.  Figure  ic. 
Probably  fuch  a  fwimming  anchor  would  have  fome  good 
efFe£t,  but  it  is  fubjedt  to  this  ohjedion,  that  lying  on  the 
furface  of  the  fea,  it  is  liable  to  be  hove  forward  by  every 
wave,  and  thereby  give  fo  much  leave  for  the  fliip  to 
drive. 

R  r  2  Two 


312         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.. 

Two  machines  for  this  purpofe  have  occurred  to  mci 
•which  though  not  fo  fimple  as  the  above,  I  imagine  would 
be  more  efFectual,  and  more  eafily  manageable.  I  will 
endeavour  to  defcribe  them,  that  they  may  be  fubmitted 
to  your  judgment,  whether  either  would  be  ferviceable; 
and  if  they  would,  to  which  we  Ihould  give  the  prefer- 
ence. 

The  firft  is  to  be  formed,  and  to  be  ufed  in  the  water 
on  almofi:  the  fame  principles  with  thofe  of  a  paper  kite 
ufed  in  the  air.  Only  as  the  paper  kite  rifes  in  the  air, 
this  is  to  delcend  in  the  water,  its  dimenfions  will  be 
different  for  Ihips  of  different  fize. 

To  make  one  of  fuppofe  fifteen  feet  high  ;  take  a  fmall 
fpar  of  that  length  for  the  back-bone,  AB,  figure  i6,  a 
fmaller  of  half  that  length  C  D,  for  the  crofs  piece.  Let 
thefe  be  united  by  a  bolt  at  E,  yet  fo  as  that  by  turning 
on  the  bolt  they  may  be  laid  parallel  to  each  other.  Then 
make  a  fail  of  ftrong  canvas,  in  the  fhape  of  figure  17. 
To  form  this,  without  wafte  of  fail-cloth,  few  together 
pieces  of  the  proper  length,  and  for  half  the  breadth,  as 
in  figure  18,  then  cut  the  whole  in  the  diagonal  lines  a, 
b,  c,  and  turn  the  piece  F  fo  as  to  place  its  broad  part  op- 
pofite  to  that  of  the  piece  G,  and  the  piece  H  in  like  man- 
ner oppofite  to  I,  which  when  all  fewed  together  will  ap- 
pear as  in  figure  17.  This  fail  is  to  be  extended  on  the 
crofs  of  figure  16,  the  top  and  bottom  points  well  fecured 
to  the  ends  of  the  long  fpar  ;  the  two  fide  points  d,  e» 
faftened  to  the  ends  of  two  cords,  which  coming  from  the 
angle  of  the  loop  (which  mufl  be  fimilar  to  the  loop  of  a 
kite)  pafs  through  two  rings  at  the  ends  of  the  fhort  fpar, 
fo  as  that  on  pulling  upon  the  loop  the  fail  will  be  drawn 
to  its  extent.  The  whole  may,  when  aboard,  be  furled 
up,  as  in  figure  19,  having  a  rope  from  its  broad  end,  to 
which  is  tied  a  bag  of  ballaft  for  keeping  that  end  down- 
wards when  in  the  water,  and  at  the  other  end  another 
rope  with  an  empty  keg  at  its  end  to  float  on  the  furface ; 

this 


MARITIME  OBSEPvVATIONS*         31- 

this  rope  long  enough  to  permit  the  kite's  defcending  into 
the  undertow,  or  if  you  pleale  lower  into  ftill  water.  It 
fl^ould  be  held  by  a  haufer.  To  get  it  home  eafily,  a  fmall 
loofe  rope  may  be  veered  out  with  it,  hxed  to  the  keg.- 
Hauling  on  that  rope  will  bring  the  kite  home  with  fmall 
force,  the  refiftance  being  fmall  as  it  will  then  come  endways. 

It  feems  probable  that  fuch  a  kite  at  the  end  of  a  long 
hauler  would  keep  a  fliip  with  her  head  to  the  wind,  and 
refilling  every  tug,  would  prevent  her  driving  fo  faft  as 
•when  her  iide  is  expofed  to  it,  and  nothing  to  hold  her 
back.  If  only  half  the  driving  is  prevenied,  fo  as  that 
fhe  moves  but  fifty  miles  inftead  of  the  hundred  during  a 
ftorm,  it  may  be  fome  advantage,  both  in  holding  fo  much 
diftance  as  is  faved,  and  in  keeping  from  a  lee  Ihore.  If 
fingle  canvas  fliould  not  be  found  ftrong  enough  to  bear 
the  tug  without  fplitting,  it  may  be  doubled,  or  ilrength- 
cned  by  a  netting  behind  it,  reprefented  by  figure  20. 

The  other  machine  for  the  fame  purpofe,  is  to  be  made 
more  in  the  form  of  an  umbrella,  as  reprefented,  figure  21* 
The  ftem  of  the  umbrella  a  fquare  fpar  of  proper  length, 
•with  four  moveable  arms,  of  which  two  are  reprefented 
C,  C,  figure  22.  Thefe  arms  to  be  fixed  in  four  joint 
cleats,  as  D,  D,  &c.  one  on  each  fide  of  the  fpar,  but  fo 
as  that  the  four  arms  may  open  by  turning  on  a  pin  in 
the  joint.  When  open  they  form  a  crofs,  on  which  a 
four  fquare  canvas  fail  is  to  be  extended,  its  corners  faft- 
ened  to  the  ends  of  the  four  arms.  Thofe  ends  are  alfo 
to  be  ftayed  by  ropes  faflened  to  the  ftem  or  fpar,  fo  as  to 
keep  them  ftiort  of  being  at  right  angles  with  it:  And  to 
the  end  of  one  of  the  arms  ftiould  be  hung  the  fmall  bag 
of  ballaft,  and  to  the  end  of  the  oppofite  arm  the  empty 
keg.  This  on  being  thrown  into  the  fea,  would  immedi- 
ately open;  and  when  it  had  performed  its  function,  and 
the  ftorm  over,  a  fmall  rope  from  its  other  end  being 
pulled  on,  would  turn  it,  clofe  it,  and  draw  it  eafily  home 
to  the  fhip.     This  machine  feems  more  fimple  in  its  ope-- 

ration, 


314        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

ration,   and  more  eafily  manageable  than  the  firft,  and 
perhaps  may  be  as  efFedlual.* 

Veflels  are  fometimes  retarded,  and  fometimes  forward- 
ed in  their  voyages,  by  currents  at  fea,  which  are  often 
not  perceived.  About  the  year  1 769  or  70,  there  was 
an  application  made  by  the  board  of  cuftoms  at  Bofton,  to 
the  lords  of  the  treafury  in  London,  complaining  that  the 
packets  between  Falmouth  and  New- York,  were  general- 
ly a  fortnight  longer  in  their  paflages,  than  merchant 
fhips  from  London  to  Rhode-lfland,  and  propofmg  that  for 
the  future  they  iTiould  be  ordered  to  Rhode-lfland  inftead 
of  New-York.  Being  then  concerned  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  American  poft-office,  I  happened  to  be  con- 
fulted  on  the  occafion;  and  it  appearing  ftrange  to  me 
that  there  Ihould  be  fuch  a  difference  between  two  places, 
fcarce  a  day's  run  afunder,  efpecially  when  the  merchant 
fhips  are  generally  deeper  laden,  and  more  weakly  man- 
ned than  the  packets,  and  had  from  London  the  whole 
length  of  the  river  and  channel  to  run  before  they  left 
the  land  of  England,  while  the  packets  had  only  to  go 
from  Falmouth,  I  could  not  but  think  the  fa£t  mifunder- 
ftood  or  mifreprefented.  There  happened  then  to  be  in 
London,  a  Nantucket  fea-captain  of  my  acquaintance,  to 
•whom  I  communicated  the  affair.  He  told  me  he  believ- 
ed the  fa(3;  might  be  true ;  but  the  difference  was  owing 
to  this,  that  the  Rhode-lfland  captains  were  acquaint- 
ed with  the  gulf  ftream,  which  thofe  of  the  Englifh 
packets  were  not.  We  are  well  acquainted  with  that 
flream,  fays  he,  becaufe  in  our  purfuit  of  whales,  which 
keep  near  the  fides  of  it,  but  are  not  to  be  met  with  in  it, 
we  run  down  along  the  fides,  and  frequently  crofs  it  to 
change  our  fide:  and  in  croffing  it  have  fometimes  met 
and  fpoke  with  thofe  packets,  who  were  in  the  middle  of 
it,  and  fl:emming  it.     We  have  informed  them  that  they 

were 

*  Cnptain  Tnixton,  on  board  -wliofe  Clip  this  was  written,  has  executed  this  propofcd 
machine;  he  has  given  fix  arms  to  the  umbrella,  they  are  jcined  to  the  fieri  by  iron  hijiges, 
ajid  the  canvas  is  double.     He  has  taken  it  witJi  him  to  China.     February  1786. 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         315 

•were  ftemming  a  current,  that  was  againft  them  to  the 
vahie  of  three  miles  an  hour;  and  adviied  them  to  crofs 
it  and  get  out  of  it;  but  they  were  too  wife  to  be  coun- 
felled  by  fimple  American  fifhermen.  When  the  winds 
are  but  light,  he  added,  they  are  carried  back  by  the 
current  more  than  they  are  forwarded  by  the  wind:  and 
if  the  wind  be  good,  the  fubtraftion  of  70  miles  a  day 
from  their  courfe  is  of  fome  importance.  I  then  obferved 
that  it  was  a  pity  no  notice  was  taken  of  this  current  up- 
on the  charts,  and  requefted  him  to  mark  it  out  tor  me, 
■which  he  readily  complied  with,  adding  directions  for  a- 
voiding  it  in  failing  from  Europe  to  North-America.  I 
procured  it  to  be  engraved  by  order  from  the  general  poft- 
office,  on  the  old  chart  of  the  Atlantic,  at  Mount  and  Page's, 
Tower-hill  ;  and  copies  were  fent  down  to  Falmouth  for 
the  captains  of  the  packets,  who  flighted  it  however ;  but 
it  is  fmce  printed  in  France,  of  which  edition  I  hereto  an- 
nex a  copy. 

This  ftream  is  probably  generated  by  the  great  accu- 
mulation of  water  on  the  eailern  coaft  of  America  between 
the  tropics,  by  the  trade  winds  which  conftantly  blow 
there.  It  is  known  that  a  large  piece  of  water  ten  miles 
broad  and  generally  only  three  feet  deep,  has  by  a  ftrong 
wind  had  its  waters  driven  to  one  fide  and  fuftained  fo  as 
to  become  fix  feet  deep,  while  the  windward  lide  was  laid 
dry.  This  may  give  fome  idea  of  the  quantity  heaped  up 
on  the  American  coaft,  and  the  reafon  of  its  running  down 
in  a  ftrong  current  through  the  iflands  into  the  bay  of 
Mexico,  and  from  thence  ifluing  through  the  gulph  of 
Florida,  and  proceeding  along  the  coaft  to  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland,  where  it  turns  off  towards  and  runs  down 
through  the  Weftern  iflands.  Having  fince  crofled  this 
ftream  feveral  times  in  pafling  between  America  and  Eu- 
rope, I  have  been  attentive  to  fundry  circumftances  relat- 
ing to  it,  by  which  to  know  when  one  is  in  it;  and  be- 
fides  the  gulph  weed  with  which  it  is  interfperfed,  I  find 

that 


3i6        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

that  it  is  always  warmer  than  the  fea  on  each  fide  of  it, 
and  that  it  does  not  fparkle  in  the  night :  I  annex  hereto 
the  obfervations  made  with  the  thermometer  in  two  voy- 
ages, and  poffibly  may  add  a  third.     It  will  appear  from 
them,  that  the  thermometer  may  be  an  ufeful  inftrument 
to  a  navigator,  fince  curreiits  coming  from  the  northward 
into  fouthern  feas,  will  probably  be  found  colder  than  the 
■water  of  thofe  feas,  as  the  currents  from  fouthern  feas  into 
northern  are  found  warmer.     And  it  is  not  to  be  wonder- 
ed that  fo  vaft  a  body  of  deep  warm  water,  feveral  leagues 
wide,  coming  from  between  the  tropics  and  iffuing  out  of 
the  gulph  into  the  northern  feas,  fhould  retain  its  warmth 
longer  than  the  twenty  or  thirty  days  required  to  its  paf- 
fmg  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.     The  quantity  is  too 
great,  and  it  is  too  deep  to  be  fuddenly  cooled  by  paffing 
under  a  cooler  air.     The  air  immediately  over  it,  how- 
ever, may  receive  fo  much  warmth  from  it  as  to  be  rari- 
fied  and  rife,  being  rendered  lighter  than  the  air  on  each 
fide  of  the  ftream;  hence  thofe  airs  muft  flow  in  to  fup- 
ply  the  place  of  the  rifing  warm  air,  and  meeting  with 
each  other,   form  thofe    tornados  and  water-fpouts   fre- 
quently met  with,  and  feen  near  and  over  the  ftream;  and 
as  the  vapour  from  a  cup  of  tea  in  a  warm  room,  and 
the  breath  of  an  animal  in  the  fame  room,  are  hardly  vifi- 
ble,  but  become  fenfible  immediately  when  out  in  the  cold 
air,   fo  the  vapour  from  the  gulph  ftream,  in  warm  lati- 
tudes is  fcarcely  vifible,   but  when  it  comes  into  the  cool 
air  from  Newfoundland,  it  is  condenfed  into  the  fogs,  for 
■which  thofe  parts  are  fo  remarkable. 

The  power  of  wind  to  raife  water  above  its  common 
level  in  the  fea,  is  known  to  us  in  America,  by  the  high 
tides  occafioned  in  all  our  fea-ports  when  a  ftrong  north- 
eafter  blows  againft  the  gulph  ftream. 

The  conclufion  from  thele  remarks  is,  that  a  vefiel  from 
Europe  to  North-America  may  fliorten  her  paffage  by  a- 
voiding  to  ftem  the  ftream,  in  which  the  thermometer  will 

be 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.        317 

be  very  ufeful ;  and  a  veflel  from  America  to  Europe  may 
do  the  fame  by  the  fame  means  of  keeping  in  it.  It  may 
have  often  happened  accidentally,  that  voyages  have  been 
fhortened  by  thefe  circumftances.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
command  of  them. 

But  may  there  not  be  another  caufe,  independent  of 
winds  and  currents,  why  palTages  are  generally  fhorter 
from  America  to  Europe  than  from  Europe  to  America  ? 
This  queftion  I  formerly  confidered  in  the  following  fhort 
paper. 

On  board  the  Pennfylvania  Packet,  Capt.  Ofborne, 

At  fea,  April  5,   1775. 

"  Suppofe  a  fhip  to  make  a  voyage  eallward  from  a 
place  in  lat.  40°  north,  to  a  place  in  Lit.  50°  north,  diftance 
in  longitude  75  degrees. 

"  In  failing  from  40  to  50,  fhe  goes  from  a  place  where 
a  degree  of  longitude  is  about  eight  miles  greater  than  in 
the  place  fhe  is  going  to.  A  degree  is  equal  to  four  mi- 
nutes of  time ;  confequently  the  Ihip  in  the  harbour  fhe 
leaves,  partaking  of  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  moves 
two  miles  in  a  minute  fafler,  than  when  in  the  port  fhe 
is  going  to  ;  which  is  120  miles  in  an  hour. 

"  This  motion  in  a  fhip  and  cargo  is  of  great  force;  and 
if  flie  could  be  lifted  up  fuddenly  from  the  harbour  ia 
which  fhe  lay  quiet,  and  fet  down  inflantly  in  the  latitude 
of  the  port  fhe  was  bound  to,  though  in  a  calm,  that  force 
contained  in  her  would  make  her  run  a  great  way  at  a 
prodigious  rate.  This  force  mufi:  be  loft  gradually  in  her 
A'oyage,  by  gradual  impulfe  againft  the  water,  and  proba- 
bly thence  fhorten  the  voyage.  Query,  In  returning  does 
the  contrary  happen,  and  is  her  voyage  thereby  retarded 
and  lengthened  ?"  * 

Would  it  not  be  a  more  fecure  method  of  planking  fhips, 
if  iurtead  of  thick  fingle  planks  laid  horizontally,  we  were 

S  s  to 

"  SInif  thi*  paper  was  read  at  the  Soc:ety,  an  ingenious  memlicr,  Mr.  Pattcrfon,  lias  con- 
vinced tilt  writer  that  the  returning  voyage  would  not,  trom  this  caufe,  be  retarded. 


3i8         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

to  life  planks  of  half  the  thicknefs,  and  lay  them  double- 
and  acrofs  each  other  as  in  figure  23  ?  To  me  it  feems  thac 
the  difference  of  expence  would  not  be  confiderable,  and 
that  the  fhip  would  be  both  tighter  and  ftronger. 

The  fecuring  of  the  ihip  is  not  the  only  neceifary  thing;: 
fecuring  the  health  of  the  failors,  a  brave  and  valuable  or-- 
der  of  men,  is  likewife  of  great  importance.     With  this 
view  the  methods  fo  fuccefsfully  pradlifed  by  Captain  Cook 
in  his  long  voyages,  cannot  be  too  clofely  lUidied  or  care- 
fully imitated.     A  full  account  of  thofe  methods  is  found 
in  Sir  John  Pringle's  fpeech,  when  the  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  was  given  to  that  illuftrious  navigator.     T  am  glad 
to  fee  in  his  laft  voyage  that  he  found  the  means  efFeftual 
■which  I  had  propofed  tor  preferving  flour,  bread,  &c.  from 
moifture  and  damage.     They  were  found  dry  and  good 
after  being  at  fea  four  years.     The  method  is  defcribed  in 
my  printed  works,  page  452,  fifth  edition.     In  the  fame," 
page  469,  470,  is  propofed  a  means  of  allaying  thirff  in 
cafe  of  want  of  frefh  water.     This  has  fmce  been  pradlifed 
in  two  inftances  with  fuccefs.      Happy  if  their  hunger,, 
when  the  other  provifions  are  confumed,  could  be  relieved 
as  commodioufly ;   and  perhaps  in  time  this  may  be  found 
not  impoffible.     An  addition  might  be  made  to  their  pre- 
fent  vegetable  provifion,  by  drying  various  roots  in  flices- 
by  the  means  of  an  oven.     The  fweet  potatoe  of  Ameri-- 
ca  and  Spain,    is  excellent  for  this   purpofe.      Other  po- 
tatoes, with  carrots,  parfnips  and  turnips,  might  be  pre- 
pared and  preferved  in  the  fame  manner. 

With  regard  to  make-ihifts  in  cafes  of  neceffity,  feamen^ 
are  generally  very  ingenious  themfelves.  They  will  ex- 
cufe  however  the  mention  of  two  or  three.  If  they  hap- 
pen in  any  circumftance,  fuch  as  after  fhipwreck,  taking 
to  their  boat,  or  the  like,  to  want  a  compafs,  a  fine  few- 
ing-needle  laid  on  clear  water  in  a  cup  will  generally 
point  to  the  north,  moft  of  them  being  a  little  magnetical, 
or  may  be  made  fo  by  being  flrongly  rubbed  or  hammer- 
ed. 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.        319 

ted,  lying  in  a  north  and  fouth  dIre£lion.  If  their  needle  is 
too  heavy  to  float  by  itfelf,  it  may  be  fupported  by  little 
pieces  of  cork  or  wood.  A  man  who  can  fwim,  may  be 
aided  in  a  long  traverfe  by  his  handkerchief  formed  into 
a  kite,  by  two  crofs  fl:icks  extending  to  the  four  corners;, 
which  being  raifed  in  the  air,  when  the  wind  is  fair  and 
frefli,  will  tow  him  along  while  lying  on  his  back. 
Where  force  is  wanted  to  move  a  heavy  body,  and  there 
are  but  few  hands  and  no  machines,  a  long  and  ftrong 
rope  may  make  a  powerful  inftrument.  Suppofe  a  boat 
is  to  be  drawn  up  on  a  beach,  that  flie  may  be  out  of  the 
furf,  a  flake  drove  into  the  beach  where  you  would  have 
the  boat  drawn ;  and  another  to  faften  the  end  of  the  rope 
to,  which  comes  from  the  boat,  and  then  applying  what 
force  you  have  to  pull  upon  the  middle  of  the  rope  at  right 
angles  with  It,  the  power  will  be  augmented  in  proporti- 
on to  the  length  of  rope  between  the  ports.  The  rope 
being  faftened  to  the  flake  A,  and  drawn  upon  in  the  di- 
redion  C  D,  will  Aide  over  the  flake  B;  and  when  the 
rope  is  bent  to  the  angle  A  D  B,  reprefented  by  the  prick- 
ed line  in  figure  24,  the  boat  will  be  at  B. 

Some  failors  may  think  the  writer  has  given  himfelf  un- 
neceflTary  trouble  in  pretending  to  advife  them  ;  for  they 
have  a  little  repugnance  to  the  advice  of  landmen,  whom 
they  efteem  ignorant  and  incapable  of  giving  any  worth 
notice;  though  it  is  certain  that  moft  of  their  inftruments 
were  the  invention  of  landmen.  At  leaft  the  firft  veflel 
ever  made  to  go  on  the  water  was  certainly  fuch.  I  will 
therefore  add  only  a  few  words  more,  and  they  fliall  be 
addreflTed  'to  paflengers. 

When  you  intend  a  long  voyage,  you  may  do  well  to 
keep  your  intention  as  much  as  poflible  a  fecret,  or  at  leall 
the  time  of  your  departure  ;  otherwife  you  will  he  conti- 
nually interrupted  in  your  preparations  by  the  vifits  of 
friends  and  acquaintance,  who  will  not  only  rob  you  of 
the  time  you  want,  but  put  things  out  of  your  mind,  fo 

S  s  2  that 


320         MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

that  when  you  come  to  fea,  you  have  the  mortification  to 
recollect  points  of  bufinefs  that  ought  to  have  been  done, 
accounts  you  had  intended  to  fettle,  and  conveniencies  you 
had  pr.opofed  to  bring  with  you,  &c.  &c.  all  which  have 
been  omitted  through  the  effed  of  thefe  officious  friendly 
vifits.  Would  it  not  be  well  if  this  cuftom  could  be  chang- 
ed ;  if  the  voyager  after  having,  without  interruption, 
made  all  his  preparations,  fhould  ufe  fome  of  the  time  he 
has  left,  in  going  himfelf  to  take  leave  of  his  friends  at 
their  own  houfes,  and  let  them  come  to  congratulate  him 
on  his  happy  return. 

It  is  not  ahvays  in  your  power  to  make  a  choice  in  your 
captain,  though  much  of  your  comfort  in  the  palTage  may 
depend  on  his  perfonal  charadler,  as  you  muft  for  fo  long 
a  time  be  confined  to  his  company,  and  under  his  direc- 
tion ;  if  he  be  a  fenfible,  fociable,  good  natured,  obliging 
man,  you  will  be  fo  much  the  happier.  Such  there  are ; 
but  if  he  happens  to  be  otherwife,  and  is  only  fkilful, 
careful,  watchful  and  aftive  in  the  condud  of  his  fhip, 
excufe  the  reft,  for  thefe  are  the  eflentials. 

Whatever  right  you  may  have  by  agreement  in  the  mafs 
of  ftores  laid  in  by  him  for  the  paflengers,  it  is  good  to 
have  fome  particular  things  in  your  own  pofTeffion,  fo  as 
to  be  always  at  your  own  command. 

I.  Good  water,  that  of  the  fiiip  being  often  bad.  You 
can  be  fure  of  having  it  good  only  by  bottling  it  from  a 
clear  fpring  or  well  and  in  clean  bottles.  2.  Good  tea. 
3.  Coffee  ground.  4.  Chocolate.  5.  Wine  of  the  fort 
you  particularly  like,  and  cyder.  6.  Raifins.  7..  Almonds 
8.  Sugar.  9.  Capillaire.  10.  Lemons.  1 1.  Jamaica fpirits. 
12.  Eggs  greas'd.  13.  Diet  bread.  14.  Portable  foup. 
15.  Rufks.  As  to  fowls,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  have 
any  called  yours,  unlefs  you  could  have  the  feeding  and 
managing  of  them  according  to  your  own  judgment  under 
your  own  eye.  As  they  are  generally  treated  at  prefent 
in  fhips,  they  are  for  the  moft  part  fick,  and  their  flefh 

tough 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         321 

tough  and  hard  as  whitleather.  All  feamen  have  an  opi- 
nion, broached  I  fuppoled  at  firft  prudently,  for  faving  of 
water  when  Ihort,  that  fowls  do  not  know  when  they 
have  drank  enough,  and  will  kill  themfelves  if  you  give 
them  too  much,  fo  they  are  ferved  with  a  little  only  once 
in  two  days.  This  is  poured  into  troughs  that  lie  llope- 
ing,  and  therefore  immediately  runs  down  to  the  lower 
end.  There  the  fowls  ride  upon  one  another's  backs  to 
get  at  it,  and  fome  are  not  happy  enough  to  reach  and 
once  dip  their  bills  in  it.  Thus  tantalized,  and  torment- 
ed with  thirft,  they  cannot  digefl:  their  dry  food,  they  fret, 
pine,  ficken  and  die.  Some  are  found  dead,  and  thrown 
overboard  every  morning,  and  thofe  killed  for  the  table 
are  not  eatable.  Their  troughs  fhould  be  in  little  divill- 
ons  like  cups  to  hold  the  water  feparately,  figure  25.  But 
this  is  never  done.  The  flieep  and  hogs  are  therefore 
your  befl:  dependance  for  frelh  meat  at  fea,  the  mutton 
being  generally  tolerable  and  the  pork  excellent. 

It  is  polTible  your  captain  may  have  provided  fo  well 
in  the  general  ftores,  as  to  render  fome  of  the  particulars 
above  recommended  of  little  or  no  ufe  to  you.  But  there 
are  frequently  in  the  fhip  poorer  paifengers,  who  are 
taken  at  a  lower  price,  lodge  in  the  fteerage,  and  have  no 
claim  to  any  of  the  cabbin  provifions,  or  to  any  but  thofe 
kinds  that  are  allowed  the  failors.  Thefe  people  are 
fometimes  dejected,  fometimes  fick,  there  may  be  women 
and  children  among  them.  In  a  fituation  where  there 
is  no  going  to  market,  to  purchafe  fuch  neceiTaries,  a 
few  of  thele  your  iupertiuities  diftributed  occafionally  may 
be  of  great  lervice,  reftore  health,  fave  lite,  make  the  mi- 
ferable  happy,  and  thereby  afford   you  infinite  pleafiire. 

The  worll  thing  in  ordinary  merchant  Ihips  is  the 
cookery.  They  have  no  profeifed  cook,  and  the  worft 
hand  as  a  feamanjis  appointed  to  that  office,  in  which  he 
is  not  only   very  ignorant  but  very  dirty.     The  failors 

have 


322        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

■have  therefore  a  faying,  that  God  fends  meat  and  the  devil 
cooks.  Paffengers  more  pioufly  difpofed,  and  willing  to 
believe  heaven  orders  all  things  for  the  beft,  may  fuppofe 
that  knowing  the  fea-air  and  conftant  exercife  by  the  mo- 
tion of  the  veflel  would  give  us  extraordinary  appetites, 
bad  cooks  were  kindly  fent  to  prevent  our  eating  too 
much ;  or,  that  forefeeing  we  fhould  have  bad  cooks,  good 
appetites  were  furniflied  to  prevent  our  ftarving.  If  you 
cannot  truft  to  thefe  circumllances,  a  fpirit-lamp,  with  a 
blaze-pan,  may  enable  you  to  cook  fome  little  things  for 
yourfelf ;  fuch  as  a  halh,  a  foup,  &c.  And  it  might  be 
well  alfo  to  have  among  your  ftores  fome  potted  meats, 
which  if  well  put  up  will  keep  long  good.  A  fmall  tin- 
oven  to  place  with  the  open  fide  before  the  fire,  may 
be  another  good  utenfil,  in  which  your  own  fervant 
may  roaft  for  you  a  bit  of  pork  or  mutton.  You  will 
fometimes  be  induced  to  eat  of  the  Ihip's  fait  beef,  as  it  is 
often  good.  You  will  find  cyder  the  beft  quencher  of 
that  thirft  which  fait  meat  or  fifh  occafions.  The  ihip 
bifcuit  is  too  hard  for  fome  fets  of  teeth.  It  may  be  foft- 
ened  by  toafting.  But  rufk  is  better;  for  being  made  of 
good  fermented  bread,  fliced  and  baked  a  fecond  time,  the 
pieces  imbibe  the  water  eafily,  foften  immediately,  digeft 
more  kindly  and  are  therefore  more  wholfome  than  the 
unfermented  bifcuit.  By  the  way,  rufk  is  the  true  ori- 
ginal bifcuit,  fo  prepared  to  keep  for  fea,  bifcuit  in  French 
fignifying  twice  baked.  If  your  dry  peas  boil  hard,  a 
two-pound  iron  fhot  put  with  them  into  the  pot,  will  by 
the  motion  of  the  fhip  grind  them  as  fine  as  muftard. 

The  accidents  I  have  feen  at  fea  with  large  diflies  of 
foup  upon  a  table,  from  the  motion  of  the  fhip,  have  made 
me  wiih  that  our  potters  or  pewterers  would  make  foup- 
difhes  in  divifions,  like  a  fet  of  fmall  bowls  united  toge- 
gether,  each  containing  about  fufficient  for  one  perfon,  in 
fome  fuch  form  as  fig.  26  ;  for  then  when  the  fhip  fhould 
.make  a  hidden  heel,  the  foup  would  not  in  a  body  flow 

over 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         ^^^ 


J 


over  one  fide,  and  fall  into  people's  laps  and  fcald  them,, 
as  is  fometimes  the  cafe,  hut  would  be  retained  in  the  fe- 
parate  diviiions,  as  in  figure  27. 

After  thefe  trifles,  permit  the  addition  of  a  few  general 
reflexions.  Navigation  when  employed  in  fupplying  ne- 
celfary  provific^ns  to  a  country  in  want,  and  thereby  pre- 
venting famines,  which  were  more  frequent  and  deftruc- 
tive  before  the  invention  of  that  art,  is  undoubtedly  a 
bleffing  to  mankind.  When  employed  merely  in  tranf- 
porting  fuperfluities,  it  is  a  queftion  whether  the  advan- 
tage of  the  employment  it  affords  is  equal  to  the  mil- 
chief  of  hazarding  ib  many  lives  on  the  ocean.  But  when 
employed  in  pillaging  merchants  and  tranfporting  flaves,  it 
is  clearly  the  means  of  augmenting  the  mafs  of  human 
milery.  It  is  amazing  to  think  of  the  fhips  and  lives 
rifqued  in  fetching  tea  from  China,  coffee  from  Arabia, 
fugar  and  tobacco  from  America,  all  which  our  anceftors 
did  well  without.  Sugar  employs  near  one  thoufand  fhips, 
tobacco  almofl  as  many.  For  the  utility  of  tobacco  there 
is  little  to  be  faid ;  and  for  that  of  fugar,  how  much  more 
commendable  would  it  be  if  v/e  could  give  up  the  few  mi- 
nutes gratification  afforded  once  or  twice  a  day  by  the  tafte 
of  fugar  in  our  tea,  rather  than  encourage  the  cruelties 
exercifed  in  producing  it.  An  eminent  French  moralift 
fays,  that  when  he  confiders  the  wars  we  excite  in  Africa 
to  obtain  flaves,  the  numbers  necefl'arily  flain  in  thofc  wars, 
the  many  prifoners  who  perifh  at  fea  by  ficknefs,  bad  pro- 
vifions,  foul  air,  &c.  &c.  in  the  tranfportation,  and  how 
many  afterwards  die  from  the  hardfhips  of  flavery,  he  can-- 
not  look  on  a  piece  of  fugar  without  conceiving  it  ftained 
with  fpots  of  human  blood  !  Had  he  added  the  confidera- 
tion  of  the  wars  we  make  to  take  and  retake  the  fugar 
iflands  from  one  another,  and  the  fleets  and  armies  that 
perifh  in  thole  expeditions,  he  might  have  feen  his  fugar 
not  merely  fpotted,  but  thoroughly  dyed  fcarlet  in  grain. 
It  is  thefe  wars  that  make  the  maritime  powers  of  Europe, 

the 


324        MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 

the  inhabitants  of  London  and  Paris,  pay  dearer  for  fugar 
than  thoi'e  of  Vienna,  a  thoufand  miles  from  the  fea  ;  be- 
caufe  their  fugar  cofts  not  only  the  price  they  pay  for  it 
by  the  pound,  but  all  they  pay  in  taxes  to  maintain  the 
fleets  and  armies  that  fight  for  it. 

With  great  efteem,  I  am,  Sir, 

Your  moft  obedient  humble  fervant, 

B.  FRANKLIN. 


Obfervatlons 


MAUTTIME  OBSERVATIONS. 


32J 


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Much  gulph  weed  ;  Taw  a  whale. 

Colour  of  water  changed. 

No  gulph  weed. 

Sounded,  no  bottom. 

Much  light  in  the  water  laft  nig. 

Water  again  of  the  ufual  deep  lea 
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Colour  of  water  changed. 

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Obfervations 


326 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 


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Obfervations 


TVTARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.        327 


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328 


MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS. 


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N.  B.   Longitude  is  reckoned  from  London,  and  the  Thermometer  is  according  to  Fahrenheit. 

1 

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S 

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'toe    ti    10  r-^  CN  •-<    "11^,  r^OO    m    r^  ^  in  ^^.nO    t^OG  OODOOO    O    •-'    P*    cflf^'i-  *nOO    "-i    c^o-jr-.Cv'-'    r*    f*".  -^-O  OC 

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C\50    r-  «n  "^  »-*  00  'O    »n  'o  "^  *^  ^'  "^  *^-  ^  >nvO  0    r^O    >n  "n  ^n  ^  "n  *^  ^  ^ >f  ^  "^  •+  »n  *n  ^n^O    ^  "i*-  lo  r-^ 

^.  0  ■-«  M  ci  d  It  *^jso  t^oo  c 

0    '-'    r*    •—.  -^  i^.sO    r-oo    CN  0    '-'    c*    "-o  ■^  i^.^O    r--00    Cn  O    m    m-  rt    e*^  <t  »0»0    r^OO    O  O 

<L 

& 

MARITIME  OBSERVATIONS.         yzg 

OBSERVATIONS. 

July  .-il.     At  one  P.  M.  the  Start  bore  W  N  \V.  diftant  fix  leagues. 
Auguft  I.     The  water  appears  luminous  in  the  fhip's  wake. 

— 1.  The  temperature  of  the  water  is  taken  at  eight  in  the  morning  and  at  eight  in  the 
Ctvening. 

— 6.  The  water  appears  lefs  luminous. 

— 7.  Formcgas  S  VV.  dift.  32^  deg.    St.  Mary's  S  W  ^  S  33  leagues. 

— 8.  From  this  date  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  taken  at  eight  in  the  morning  and"  at 
fix  in  the  evening. 

—10.   Moonlight,  which  prevents  the  luminous  appearance  of  the  water. 

— II.  A  ftrong  foutherly  current. 

— 12.  Ditto.  From  this  date  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  water  was  taken  at  noon, 
as  well  as  morning  and  evening. 

—16.  Northerly  current. 

—  19.   Firft  faw  gulph  weed. 

—21.  Southerly  current. 

■^22.  Again  faw  gulph  weed. 

—24.  The  water  appeared  luminous  in  a  fmall  degree  before  the  moon  rofc.. 

—29.  No  moon,  yet  very  little  light  in  the  water. 

— 30.  Much  gulph  weed  to-day., 

— 31.  Ditto. 

Sept.   I.  Ditto. 

—2.  A  little  more  light  in  the  water. 

—4.  No  gulph  weed  to-day.     More  light  in  the  water. 

—5.  Some  gulph  weed  again. 

— 6.  Little  light  in  the  water.     A  very  hard  thunder-guft  in  the  night. 

—7.  Little  gulph  weed. 

—8.  More-  light  in  the  water.     Little  gulph  weed. 

—9.  Little  gulph  weed.     Little  light  in  the  water  laft  evening. 

—10.  Saw  fome  beds  of:  rock-weed ;  and  we  were  furprifed  to  obferve  the  water  fix  de- 
grees colder  by  the  thermometer  than  the  preceding  noon. 

This  day  (loth)  the  thermometer  IHll  kept  defccnding,  and  at  five  in  the  morning  of  the 
nth,  it  was  in  water  as  low  as  70,  when  we  ftruck  foundings.  The  fame  evening  the  pilot 
came  on  board,  and  we  found  our  fhip  about  five  degrees  of  longitude  a-head  of  the  reckon- 
ing, which  our  captain  accounted  for  by  fupixjfing  our  courfe  to  have  been  near  the  edge  of  the 
gulph  ftream,  and  thus  an  eddy-current  always  in  our  favour.  By  the  diftance  we  ran  from 
Sept.  9,  in  the  evening,  till  wc  ftruck  foundings,  we  mull  have  then  been  at  the  weftern  edge 
of  the  gulph  ffream,  and  the  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  probably  owing  to 
our  fuddenly  pafTmg  from  that  current,  into  the  w^aters  of  our  own  climate. 

On  the  14th  of  Auguit  the  following  experiment  was  made.  The  weather  being  perfectly 
calm,  an  empty  bottle,  corked  very  tight,  was  fcnt  down  20  fathoms,  and  it  was  drawn  up 
flill  empty.  It  was  then  fent  down  again  ^5  fathoms,  when  the  weight  of  the  water  having 
forced  in  the  cork,  it  was  drawn  up  full ;  the  w^ater  it  contained  was  immediately  tried  by 
the  thermometer,  and  found  to  be  70,  which  was  fix  degrees  colder  than  at  the  furface  :  1  he 
lead  and  bottle  were  vifible,  but  not  very  diftineHy  fo,  at  the  depth  of  12  fathoms  but  when 
only  7  fathoms  deep,  they  were  pcrfedliy  feen  from  the  fhip.  This  experiment  was  thus  re- 
peated Sept.  II,  when  we  were  in  foundings  of  18  fathoms.  A  keg  was  previoufly  prepared 
with  a  valve  at  each  end,  one  opening  inward  the  other  outward  ;  this  was  lent  to  the  bottom 
in  expediation  that  by  the  valves  being  both  open  when  going  down,  and  both  fhut  when  com- 
ing up,  it  would  keep  within  it  the  water  received  at  bottom.  The  upper  valve  performed 
its  office  well,  but  the  under  one  did  not  Ihut  quite  clofe,  fo  that  much  of  the  water  was  lolt 
in  hauling  it  irp  the  fhip's  fide.  As  the  water  in  the  keg's  paflage  upwards  could  not  enter  at 
the  top,  it  was  concluded  that  what  water  remained  in  it  was  of  that  near  the  ground,  and  on 
trying  this  by  the  thermometer,  it  was  found  to  be  at  j8,  which  was  13,  degrees  colder  than 
at  the  furface. 

T/./is  litj}  Journal  lyas  obligingly  hpt  for  me  by  Afr,  y.  IViHiitms^  tijy  fdloil-paJJ'Litger  in  the  Lon~ 
itin  Faekd^  ivho  made  alithe  o^^etimenU  ivitlf^reat  cKuiint/i, 

Tivo 


[    Zl^    1 


N°  XXXIX. 


Tivo  Hearts  found  in  one  Partridge. 

ALL  the  works  of  nature  are  linked  the  one  to  the 
other  and  form  a  whole,  in  theimmenfity  of  which 
we  only  perceive  fome  points  which  appear  to  us  detach- 
ed, becaufe  thole  which  unite  them  are  concealed  from 
us. 

The  refult  of  this  conne£lion  is,  that  no  work  of  na- 
ture ought  to  be  neglected,  that  there  is  not  one  which 
may  not  derive  fome  diredt  or  indire(£l  utility  to  man. 

That  which  appears  futile,  fhould  be  grafped  like  the 
others,  and  inpoflefling  ourfelves  of  it  we  fhould  be  affured 
that  we  have  hold  of  a  chain,  the  precious  links  of  which 
will  be  difcovered  by  time\  If  thofe  links  which  are 
wanting  leave  vacancies,  the  intermediate  links  are  every 
day  prefented  to  us  by  the  hand  of  chance ;  and  it  is  the 
bufuiefs  of  the  naturaliil  to  arrange  them.  Let  us  then  of- 
fer 

DEUX  COEURS  TROUVES  DANS  UNE  PERDRIX. 

TO  US  les  faits  de  la  nature  font  lies  les  iins  aux  autres,  et  forment  un  tout,  dans  I'lmmen- 
fitc  duquel  nous  n'appercevons  que  quelques  points,  qui  nous  paroiffent  ifoles  parce-quc 
ceux  qui  Ics  unifTent  nous  lont  caches.  II  refulte  de  cet  enchaincment  qu'aucun  fait  de  la  na- 
ture ne  doit  etre  neglige^  qu'il  en  eft  pas  un  qui  ne  puilTe  devenir  de  quelque  utilite  pour 
I'homme,  foit  direifte  ou  indireifte.  Celui  qui  paroit  Ic  plus  futile  doit  etre  rccueilli  comme 
les  autres  ;  en  le  faififlant  on  dolt  etre  affurc  qu'on  tient  une  chaine  ou  le  temps  dc'convrira  de3 
chainonsprecieux*.  Si  ceux  qui  manqucnty  laillent  des  lacunes,  ces  chainonsintermediaires  nous 
font  tous  les  jours  prcfentes  par  la  main  du  hazard,  et  celle  du  naturalilte  les  met  a  leurs  places. 

Offrons 

(a)  We  here  fee  women  fit  quiet  in  their  houfes  whilft  thunder  is  rumbling  over  their  heads; 
Would  they,  at  this  day,  enjoy  this  happy  fecurity,  if  a  man  had  not  obfei"ved,  fome  thoufand 
years  ago,  that  a  piece  of  amber  when  rubbed  attra(5t:ed  light  bodies  which  are  near  it.  It 
is  he  who  put  into  the  hands  of  modern  philofophers  the  chain  in  which  Franldin  was  to  find 
the  link,   Irom  whicJi  his  imagination  took  the  hint  of  his  condudtor. 

*  N'ous  -voyons  hi  hs  jcmmes  tranquilles  dans  Icurs  tnaifons  lorfque  la  ti)}wfrre  gronde fur  leur  tefu 
^omroient  ellcs  aujourdhui  de  cctte  heitreuft:  fccurite^  ft  tin  hommc  ly' a'voit  offeyjc  il  v  J  quelques  miHiert 
(i'annfesj  qntm  morccau  d^ amhre  froite  attirt  les  corps  legcrs  qui  Va'voifinent?  C^cji  li:i  qui  a  mis  dant 
hs  mains  dcs  phyjiciens  moderms  la  chains  ou  Sranklin  dtvoit  trouver  U  chainon  dont  U  cjl  parti  pour 
iffMginerfun  condu^eur-. 


■  Flate.J. 


J'l:it(_>  — 


H        E        M       A       k       K 

NZWrOUNUI.  ANU    Tb    N  Z  W- Y  oa1(f|^^ 
Jm  t^Mr  h  a%tiJ  lit 
O  II  L  1'  il      Jl  7    K.  £  A  M 

'  • 

AfTI^R  >'>„l.uvr  f^rrr.t  ihc  Iluilu  of  NtwroundUnd  !n  a£oi« 
>'"    I  i        '  '    .    yuu  wiU  meet  Mfith  autliiiiK,  till 

J""  ■''  '  ■■  whuh  wc  commonly  pait  in  U- 

■  "u<l'    4  .  itit  (utniir  It  (ouitil  lo  cironl 

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f '  *  '      I'lf*  lliriii  in  Aliriut  Utiludc  40'^,  bcoulc 

''  til. ill    b-fik»   lc«.ljt-  *,  1*1  Nunii  A*  Jy    .   • 

'  ■  li'    111  41'  Ji'- 

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io'*  4('.      'I'hr  iiLnhrmrput  of  fhr  currcm  JireCUy  ro  irn   muui  i.l 
N'lituAtt  i>  Kli  111  jIjuui  UtituJi.  j$  '  J./'. 

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'''  "  f"  to  the  li)uiln*^il.  and  <i,iX  into  Utai  lliuai. 

>  ivUI>y  i(  At  ihc  tAir  uf  6j  nr  ;o  nuUt  j  Jaj. 


Alulc'tiwnbcini- 

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tin-  WAiiiilh  ii(  tlu 
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.1  with 

i  -juitc 

I    ft. .XI 

atquunicd  witli   llu'i 

^'i'Ijii^I  10  BoAuo  in  At 

■.i((  from  Uolluu 


■-■^/'y  n^ 


PARTRIDGE  avitii  two  HEARTS.     23^ 

fer  him  all  thofe  which  we  meet  with.  It  increafes  the 
mafs  of  human  knowledge,  and  enriches  a  ftore-houfe 
which  is  very  precious  to  man;  a  ware-houfe  belonging 
to  all  nations  and  to  all  ages.  Not  to  lodge  every  new 
difcovery  in  this  common  ftore,  is  to  i'quander  away  riches 
^vhich  we  held  only  in  truft,  and  in  w  hich  the  moft  di- 
flant  generations  have  an  intereft.  This  is  criminally  de- 
priving humanity  of  a  bleffing  which  is  intended  for  the 
good  of  fociety. 

The  foregoing  refledlions  induce  me  to  publiih  the 
following  fa£t.  Monfieur  Verge,  fenior  furgeon  of  the 
artillery,  lodged  next  door  to  me,  and  came  into  my  room, 
with  the  entrails  of  a  partridge  which  he  hadjufl:  opened, 
and  {hewed  me  two  hearts  attached  to  one  lung  by  blood 
veflels.  I  requefted  him  to  go  immediately  to  the  chev. 
de  Chaftellux,  knowing  that  the  phenomenon  would  be 
interefting  to  him.  But  wifhing  firft  to  ftep  home,  and 
not  being  able  with  one  hand  to  open  the  padlock  which 
faftened  his  door,  he  put  down  the  faucer  which  contained 
the  entrails;  his  dog  who  had  followed,  fuppofing  it  was 
a  mei's  for  himfelf,  foon  emptied  the  faucer. 

The  chevalier  de  Chaftellux  called  on  me  an  hour  after- 
wards to  fee  a  male  opoffum,  of  which  I  fpoke  to  him  on 

account 

Offrons  lui  done  tous  ceiix  que  nous  rencontrons,  c'eft  groflir  la  malTe  desconnoilTances  humai- 
nes,  et  ciirichir  le  magazin  le  plus  prccicux  a  rhomine,  magazin  qui  apparticnt  a  toutes  les  na- 
tions et  a  tous  Ics  fiecles.  Ne  pas  i  ajiporter  a  ce  deput  commim  les  faits  nouveaux  que  Ton  de- 
couvre,  c'eft  perdre  des  ri^ht-fles  dont  on  etoit  depofitaire,  et  fur  lefquelles  les  generations  les 
plus  reculees  avoient  des  droits.  C'eft  le  rendre  coupable  envers  I'humanite,  en  la  fiuftrant 
d'un  hien  dont  on  lui  etoit  comptable. 

Cc  font  ces  reflexions  qui  m'engagent  a  rendre  publique  le  fait  fuivant. 

I^e  Sieur  Verge,  chirurgien  major  de  I'artillerie,  loge  a  cote  de  chez  moi,  entra  il  y  a  quel- 
ques  jours  dans  ma  chambre,  tenant  dans  fes  mains  les  entrailles  d'une  perdrix  qu'il  venoit 
d'ouvrir,  et  m'y  fit  remarquer  deux  coeurs  qui  tenoient  a  im  mcme  poumon  par  des  vailleaux 
funguins.  Je  le  priai  d'aller  fur  Ic  champ  les  faire  voir  .i  Mr.  le  Chevr.  de  Chaftellux,  que  je 
favois  que  ce  phenomcnc  inttrcfleroit.  Mais  ayant  voulu  auparavant  rentrer  ciiez  lui,  et  ne 
pouvant  d'une  main  ouvrir  le  cadenat  qui  fernie  fa  porte,  il  pofa  a  tcrre  la  foucoupc  fur  la 
quelle  etoit-nt  ces  entrailles.  .Son  chien,  qui  I'avolt  fuivi,  crut  que  c'etoil  pour  lui,  et  cut 
bientot  vide  la  foucoupe.  Mr.  le  Ch-vr.  de  Challellux  vint  une  heure  aprcs  chez  moi,  voir  un 
opoffum  male,  dont  je  lui  avois  parle  a  cauTe  dc  la  Cngularite  des  organcs  de  la  generation  de 

cct 


352     PARTRIDGE  WITH  two  HEARTS. 

account  of  the  fingularity  of  his  organs  of  generation^ 
I  mentioned  to  him  the  two  hearts,  he  could  not  compre- 
hend me.  I  fent  to  afk  of  the  fenior  furgeon  why  he  did 
not  do  what  I  requefted  of  him  ;  he  came  and  related 
the  accident  of  the  faucer.  The  chevalier  de  Chaftellux 
judged  there  was  no  other  way  of  repairing  the  lofs  but  by 
a  certificate,  ftating  what  we  had  feen;  but  every  thing 
confpired  againft  the  defire  the  chevalier  de  Chaftellux 
and  I  had  to  perpetuate  the  phenomenon ;  the  dog  had  de- 
prived us  of  the  monument;  the  mafter  refufed  us  his 
certificate,  faying,  one  cannot  be  too  circumfpedl  in  affirm- 
ing a  fa£t  which  we  ouL^ht  not  to  judge  of  from  external 
appearances ;  but  to  be  convinced  that  that  which  appeared 
to  us  as  two  hearts  were  really  fo,  they  ought  to  have  been 
difle£ted,  &c.  One  cannot  too  much  applaud  the  fcruples 
of  Mr.  Verge  ;  but  regarding  as  much  my  veracity  as  Mr. 
Verge  his,  I  am  not  afraid  to  hazard  an  exadt  relation  of 
what  I  have  feen,  without  alteration  or  exaggeration.  I 
faw,  then,  two  flefhy  fubftances  of  a  brown  violet  colour, 
of  an  oblong  form,  thicker  at  one  end  than  the  other,  nearly 
round  taken  tranfverfely.     Thefe  two  fubftances  refembled 

each 

cet  animalf .  Je  lu!  parlai  des  deux  coeiirs;  il  ne  fcut  ce  que  je  lui  voulois  dire :  J'envoyai  de- 
mander  au  chinirgeon  major  pourquoi  il  n'avoit  pas  execute  ce  que  je  lui  avoit  dit ;  il  vint  nous 
raconter  I'accident  de  la  foucoupe.  Mr.  le  Chevr.  de  Chaftellux  jugea  qu'l  n'y  avoit  pas 
d'autrc  moyen  de  rcparer  cette  perte,  que  par  un  proces  verbal,  qui  conftata  ce  que  nous  avions 
vu.  Mais  tout  conlpiroit  contre  Ic  defir  que  Mr.  le  Chevr.  de  Chaftellux  ct  moi  avions  de 
pcrpetucr  le  fouvenir  de  ce  phenomene  :  Le  chien  nous  a  prive  du  monument ;   le  maitre  nous 

refufe  fon  attcftation,  Ailznt,  qii\n  ne  prut  rlrc  trop  lircunfjira  i  affrmer  un  fait ;  qu  il  lie  faut  fat 
juver  fur  ties  dpfia fences  exferfeurs;  que  pour  etre  iijfure  que  ce  qui  nous  a  paru  des  coeurs  fujjeut  reellement 
des  coeurs,  qu'il  eut  fallu  tes  avoir  au-verti,  tift.  On  ne  ptut  qu'aplaudir  aux  fentiments  qui  rendent 
M.  Verge  fi  fcrupuleux.  Mais  en  me  piquant  d  aut:mt  de  veracite  que  M.  Verge,  -je  ne 
trains  point  de  la  compromettre  en  rendant  exaftement  ce  que  j'ai  vu,  fans  alteration  et  fans 
exageration.  Or  j'ai  vCi  deux  corps  charnus  d'un  violet  brun,  de  forme  un  peu  oblongue, 
plus  gros  par  un  bout  que  par  I'autre,  un  peu  plus  convcxc  d'un  cote  que  de  I'autre,  a  peu 
pres  ronds  couiidercs  tranfverfalement.     Ces  deux  corps  etoient.  abfolumeut  femblables  I'un  a 

I'autre 

(b)  It  has  nothing  external  except  the  two  tefticlcs  placed  under  the  belly;  the  male  and  the 
female  have  but  one  orifice  placed  under  the  tail,  which  ferves  them  to  void  their  excrements, 
their  urine,  and  probably  for  generation.  It  is  not  known  whether  a  penis  conies  out  of  thit 
orifice,  or  whether  there  is  nothing  but  an  opening  of  the  two  orifices  in  the  a61:  of  copulation. 

f  //  n'a  d'extcricur  que  deux  teficules  placces  fous  le  ventre,  le  male  et  la  femelte  n  cnt  qu  un  orifiet 
place  fous  la  queue  qui  leur  fert  a  vider  les  excrements,  les  urines,  et  prohtiUentent  a  la  generation.  On 
ignore  f  par  ce  cloaque  le  male  fort  mie  ver^e,  on  I'il  ne  fe  fait  qu  un  Muchement  dei  dtnH  orifitis  Ion 
dt  lu  copulatian. 


PARTRIDGE  with  two  HEARTS.     ^33 

each  other  exadly  in  fize,  form  and  colour.  From  their 
thicker  ends  came  out  feveral  veffels,  among  them  I  ob- 
ferved  one  to  each  of  the  bodies  .pretty  large  and  paler 
than  the  rell ;  a  part  of  this  velfel  was  faltened  to  the 
lungs  in  fuch  a  manner,  that  by  taking  hold  of  only  the 
lungs,  thefe  two  bodies  in  queftion  were  both  fufpended  at 
the  fame  diftance  from  the  lungs.  In  placing  thefe  vifcera 
on  the  hand  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  refemblinc:  fides  of 
thefe  two  bodies  faced  each  other,  the  veffels  w^hich  were 
fufpended  appeared  uniformly  difpofed,  which  makes  me 
imagine  that  the  two  bodies  were  uniformly  difpofed  in 
the  body  ot  the  animals  However,  the  above  obfervati- 
ons  being  frefh  in  my  memory,  I  ordered  the  entrails  of 
four  dozen  of  partridges  of  the  fame  fpecies'',  jufl:  taken 
out,  to  be  brought  me;  and  I  found  in  each  a  body  like 
the  double  body  which  had  been  found  in  the  bird  of  Mr. 
Verge,  having  fimilar  veffels,  fome  of  which  were  paler 
than  others,  adhering  in  the  fame  manner  to  the  lungs, 
and  this  body  was  certainly  a  heart  or  my  partridges  had 
none.     I  neverthelefs  leave  every  one  at  liberty  to  judge 

U  u  which 

rautrc,  en  volume,  en  forme,  et  en  couleur;  dc  leur  gros  bout  fortolent  plufieurs  vaifTeaur, 
parmi  lefquels  j'en  rcmarquai  un  a  chacun  de  ces  corps,  alsez  gros  et  de  couleur  plus  pale  que 
les  autres  ;  une  partie  de  ces  vaifleaux  tenoient  au  poumon,  de  manicre  que  faiUirant  ieulc- 
Itient  le  poumon,  les  deux  corps  dont  ii  s'agit  y  reftoient  fufpendus  tous  deux  a  la  meme  dif- 
tance du  poumon.  En  arrangeant  ces  vifceres  fur  la  main,  de  maniere  que  les  cotes  femblables 
de  ces  deux  corps  fe  regardalTent,  les  vaiffeaux  qui  y  tenoient  fe  trouvoient  fimetriquement 
difpofes ;  ce  qui  me  fait  juger  que  ces  deux  corps  devoient  fe  trouver  dans  I'animal  fimetrique- 
ment places'.  Ellfin  ayant  encore  la  memoire  fraiche  des  obfervations  fufdites,  je  me  fis  ap- 
porter  les  entrailles  de  quatre  douzaines  de  perdrix  de  la  meme  efpecef  que  Ton  venoit  dc  vi- 
der,  et  j'ai  vii  qu'il  fe  trouvoit  dans  chacune  un  corps  en  tout  femblable  a  celui  qui  s'etoit 
Uouve  double  dans  la  perdrix  de  M.  Verge,  ayant  de  pa^rcils  vaiffeaux,  dont  un  plus  pale  que 
les  autres,  tenant  dc  la  meme  manicre  au  poumon,  et  ce  corps  etoit  certainement  un  cceur 
ou  mes  perdrix  n'cn  avoient  pas.  Je  laill'e  maintenant  cbacun  libre  de  juger  lequel  paroit  le 
plus  vraifcmblable,  qu'une  perdrix  cut  deux  coeurs,  ou  qu'il  ne  s'eu  trouva  pas  un  feul  dans 

quarante 

*    y^^  P'^^f^'^^  quits  occiipoierit  Us  aiux  cotis  du  thorax^  et  que  Us  "jtines  de  run  s""  anajlomofoient  auK 
art  res  de  I  autre  et  reciproquemertt. 

(c)  1  prefume  that  they  occupied  the  two  fides  of  the  thorax,  and  that  the  veins  of  the  one 
anaftamofed  with  the  arteries  of  the  other,  and  vice  verfa. 

•j"  Elle  ejl  un  peu  plus  petite  que  celle  quon  appelle  en  France  perdrix  de  p<tj[agc  ou  raquefte^  ellefe 
perche  de  meme. 

(d)  It  appears  rather  fmaller  than  that  which,  in  France,  i«  called  perdrix  de  palTage,  or 
raquctte ;  they  fit  ou  a  tree  in  the  fame  manner. 


334     PARTRIDGE  with  two  HEARTS. 

which  was  the  mofi:  probable,  that  one  partridge  had  two 
hearts,  or  that  forty-eight  had  none  at  all.  It  may  indeed 
be  objected,  that  the  firft  might  have  a  true  and  a  fall'e 
one.  Mr.  Voltaire,  who  believes  that  nature  amufes  her- 
felf  in  making  concha  veneris,  might  alfo  believe  that  fhe 
diverted  hcrfelf  in  imitating  two  hearts.  I  fhould  there- 
fore be  as  circumfpedl  as  Mr.  Verge,  and  not  affirm  foon- 
er  than  him  that  his  partridge  had  two  hearts,  for  I  may 
be  miftaken.  I  am,  however,  infinitely  more  certain  of  it 
than  that  it  had  but  one. 

D'ABOVILLE. 
Williamfburgh,  Feb.  15,   1782. 

I  the  fubfcriber,  fenior  furgeon  of  the  regiment  of  Aux- 
onne,  and  of  the  artillerymen  of  the  king's  army  in  Ame- 
rica, do  declare,  that  the  loth  of  this  month,  having  taken 
out  the  entrails  of  the  body  of  a  partridge,  there  appeared  to 
me  two  hearts.  However,  during  the  Ihort  time  that  I  had 
to  infpe£l  them,  I  was  fo  aftonilhed  with  fo  furprizing  a 
phenomenon,  that  I  fear  my  eyes  may  have  deceived  me, 
and  I  dare  not  to  affirm  what  I  believe  I  faw.  I  went  im- 
mediately to  a  merchant,  who  lodged  next  door  to  me,  to 
ffiow  him  this  miracle,  and  alfo  to  Mr.  Aboville.  The  lat- 
ter has  juft  read  to  me  the  account  he  has  written  of  this 
phenomenon  as  it  appeared  to  him.     I  hereby  certify  that 

1  faw 

t^uarcntc  huit  pcrdrlx.  II  reflcra  a  dire  que  la  premiere  pouvoit  en  avoir  un  vrai  et  un  faux, 
]VI.  de  Voltaire,  qui  croyoit  que  la  nature  s'ainule  a  imiterdes  conqua  veneris,  auroit  piicroire 
qu'elle  s'amufe  aulTi  a  contrefaire  des  coeurs;  je  ierai  done  aufli  circonfped:  que  M.  Verge,  et 
n'afTirmerai  pas  plus  que  lui  que  la  perdrix  avoir  deux  coeurs,  car  je  pourrois  me  tromper; 
j'en  iuis  cependant  iufiniment  plus  certain  que  je  ne  le  fuis  Ae  n'eu  avoir  qu'un. 

A  Williamlburg  en  Virginie,  le  ij  Fev.  1782. 
(Signe)    d'Aboville. 

JE  foufTigne,  chirurgien  major  dn  regiment  d'Auxonne,  et  de  I'equipage  d'artillerie  de  I'ar-- 
mee  du  roi  en  Anierique ;  declare,  que  le  dix  de  ce  mois  ayant  retire  Ics  entrailles  du  corps 
d'uue  perdrix,  il  me  parut  qu'il  s'y  trouvoit  deux  cneurs.  Mais  pendant  le  peu  de  temps  que 
j'ai  pu  les  confiderer,  j'etois  tellement  ebloui  d'un  phenomene  anflt  furjircnant,  que  je  crains 
que  mes  yeux  ne  m'ayent  trompc,  et  n'ofe  allirmer  ce  que  je  crois  avoir  vu.  Je  fus  fur  le 
champ  montrer  cette  merveille  a  un  marchand  qui  loge  a  cote  de  chez  moi,  et  a  M.  d'Abo- 
•»illc ;  ce  dernier  viciit  de  mc  lire  I'expofc  qu'il  a  ecrit  de  ce  phiinomene,  tel  qu'il  s'eft  pre- 

icnte- 


PARTRIDGE  with  two  HEARTS.     :^^^ 

I  faw  nothing  contrary  to  the  obfervations  contahied  in 
this  account.  , 

Williamfburgh,  Feb.  15,  1782.  VERGE. 


I  the  fubfcriber,  merchant  at  Williamfburgh,  refiding 
next  door  to  Mr.  Verge,  fenior  furgeon  of  artillery,  do 
certify  that  the  loth  of  this  month,  this  furgeon  came  to 
fhew  me  the  entrails  of  a  partridge,  and  pointed  out  to 
me  two  hearts  very  diftin£t,  adhering  by  their  blood-vef- 
fels  to  the  (lime  lung.  I  moreover  certify  that  Mr.  Abo- 
ville  has  read  me  the  account  he  has  given  thereof,  and 
that  I  find  nothing  in  it  contrary  to  what  I  faw. 

THOMAS   BENTLEY. 

Williamfl^urgh,  Feb.  18,    1782. 

fente  a  fes  yeux.     Je  ccrtifie  n'avoir  rien  obfcrve  qui  ne  foit  conforme  aux  obfervations  con- 
tenues  daiis  cet  expolc. 

A  Williamfburg,  leiSFev.   1782. 
(Signc)  Verge. 

Je  fouffigne  marchand  demcurant  a  William(burg  a  cote  de  chez  M.  Verge,  chirurgieii 
major  de  Tartillerie,  certifie,  que  le  dix  de  ce  mois  ce  chirurgien  vint  me  montrer  les  entrailleg 
d'une  perdrix,  et  qu'il  m'y  fit  remarquer  deux  coeurs,  bien  diftinfls,  tenans  tous  les  deux  par 
leurs  vaiflcauK  fanguins,  a  un  mcme  poumon.  Je  certifie  en  outre  que  M.  d'Aboville  vient 
de  me  lire  I'expofe  qu'il  en  a  fait,  et  que  je  n'y  ai  rien  trouve  que  de  conforme  a  ce  que 
j'avois  vu. 

A  William{burg,   le  18  Fev.  1782. 
(Signe)  Thomas  Bentley. 


N°  XL. 


ConjeSlures  concerning  Wind  mid  Water-SpoutSt  Tornados 
and  Hurricanes.  Conmiunicated  by  Dr.  John  Perkins, 
of  Bojlon,  to  John  Morgan,  M.  D.  of  Philadelphia^ 
Profejfor  cf  the  Theory  and  Pra£iice  of  Phyfic ;  and 
F.  R.  S.  London^  f^'c. 


w 


ITH  refpedl  to  water-fpouts  what  I  am  about  to 

confider  is  whether  water  afcends  or  defcends  in 

U  u  2  thefe 


^^6        CONJECTURES    concerning 

thefe  bodies?  A  queftion  which  it  is  reafonable  to  think 
fhould  be  determined  by  fads,  and  the  nature  of  things; 
and  concerning  which,  if  we  wifli  to  attain  to  any  certain- 
ty, we  muft  be  careful  not  to  be  mifled  by  fuch  appear- 
ances and  imaginations,  as  have  hitherto  commanded  the 
general  belief. 

Agreeable  to  this  method  of  inquiry,  I  fhall  in  the  firft 
place  produce  the  obfervatlons  of  three  or  four  perfons, 
in  whom  I  can  confide  for  fimplicity  and  honefty  of  in- 
tention. 

The  firft  is  that  of  captain  Melling,  formerly  of  Bofton, 
who  informed  me  that  in  a  voyage  from  our  Weft-India 
iflands,  in  the  month  of  Auguft,  in  a  warm  day  juft  at 
evening,  a  fpout  fell  clofe  by  the  veflel,  and  in  two  or  three 
feconds  of  time  came  acrofs  the  ftern  where  he  then  was, 
A  flood  of  water,  as  he  expreffed  it,  poured  upon  him  and 
almoft  beat  him  down,  fo  that  he  was  obliged  to  lay  hold 
of  what  was  neareft  to  him,  to  prevent  being  waftied 
overboard,  which  in  his  fright  he  was  apprehenfive  of» 
But  the  fpout  immediately  pafled  off  with  a  roaring  noife 
into  the  fea.  I  afked  him  if  he  tafted  the  water?  Tafte  it 
faid  he!  1  could  not  help  tafting  it,  it  ran  Into  my  mouth, 
nofe,  eyes  and  ears.  Was  it  then  frefli  or  fait?  as  frefli, 
faid  he,  as  ever  I  tafted  fpring  water  in  my  life. 

The  next  account  I  had  was  from  captain  John  Wake- 
field, alfo  of  Bofton,  which  was,  that  being  juft  within  the 
ftralts  of  Gibraltar,  a  fpout  fell  clofe  by-his  fliip  with  a  great 
roaring  which  he  heard  as  he  was  letting  in  the  cabbin,  the 
men  upon  deck  immediately  crying  out  for  him  to  come 
up,  which  he  inftantly  did,  and  iaw  it  travelling;  away 
before  the  fliip,  fo  near  that  he  plainly  faw  the  water  de- 
fcend.  His  men  aflhred  him  that  it  did  fo  from  the  be- 
ginning. He  told  me  the  wind  was  very  fmall  during 
the  operation  of  it. 

Captain  John  Howland,  of  the  fame  town,  told  me 
that  in  paffmg  the  calm  latitudes,  a  fpout  fell  fo  near  that 

he 


WIND  AND  WATER-SPOUTS,  &c.      2>2>7 

he  evidently  favv  the  water  defcend,  very  contrary  to  his 
former  opinion  concerning  thele  bodies. 

Mr.  Samuel  Spring,  of  tlie  lame  town,  told  me  that  in 
a  voyage  from  India,  in  palfing  the  ftraits  of  Malacca,  a 
fpout  fell  by  eftimation  about  fifty  yards  from  their  fliip; 
the  appearance  of  which  was  that  of  a  column  of  water; 
or  rather  a  ftream  of  almoft  contiguous  drops,  from  the 
cloud  down  into  the  fea,  making  a  great  froth  in  the 
place  like  water  falling  among  rocks,  as  he  expreffed  it. 
He  faid  it  was  extremely  plain  that  the  water  defcended. 
One  of  the  iliip's  crew  was  with  him  when  he  gave  me 
this  account,  and  confirm.ed  it. 

Many  other  accounts  I  have  had  from  thofe  who  have 
feen  fpouts,  but  fo  indeterminate  as  not  to  be  worth  much 
notice;  I  therefore  content  myfelf  with  the  above,  which 
fpeak  for  themfelves. 

In  the  next  place  I  fhall  make  a  few  remarks  on  Mr. 
Stuart's  figures  of  fpouts,  which  he  took  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, as  they  are  to  be  feen  in  the  philofophical  tranf- 
adions  of  London,  Le  Motte's  abridgement  ;  particularly 
on  the  pointing  to  the  place  of  fpattering  in  the  water, 
and  the  great  roar  that  attends  the  operation  of  a  large 
fpout ;  the  bufh  about  the  foot  or  bale  of  a  great  fpout; 
the  break  or  partition  in  the  trunk  of  it  at  the  top  of  the 
bufh;  and  the  pillar-like  appearance  within  the  bufh. 

tirff  I  fhall  endeavour  to  give  fome  idea  of  the  nature 
and  caufe  of  the  pointing  by  the  external  and  apparent 
means  that  nature  ufes  in  the  produftion  of  a  fpout;  for 
as  to  the  intimate  operations  of  nature  our  faculties  can- 
not reach  them.  Two  or  three  obfervations  I  fuppofe 
will  readily  be  granted,  and  fhorten  my  work. 

One  is  that  thofe  places  where  the  lower  region  of  air 
is  drawn  away  on  one  or  both  fides,  either  by  the  heat  of 
neighbouring  continents,  or  in  the  calm  latitudes,  from 
which  itpalles  away  into,  and  for  the  fupply  of  the  equa- 
torial 


338         CONJECTURES    concerning 

torial  expence,  are  likely  to  be  the  places  moft  liable  to 
fpouts. 

In  the  next  place  I  exped  It  will  be  granted  that  the  air  is 
much  colder  in  the  upper  regions,  and  of  confequence  fpe- 
cifically  heavier  than  that  near  the  furface,  by  which 
when  there  are  little  or  no  differing  motions  of  the  air, 
(i.  e.  winds)  in  or  about  the  region  of  the  clouds,  particular 
fpots  of  air  and  vapour  in  the  cloud,  may  be  difpofed  to 
defcend,  and,  when  fo,  will  take  very  aptly  a  particular 
channel  downwards.  Thefe  things  being  granted  what  is 
of  a  like  kind  will  readily  be  fo  difpofed  too,  as  when  the 
atmofphere  is  full  of  vapours  condenfing  into  clouds,  this 
condenfation  may  be  quicker  in  one  place  than  in  another, 
which  by  the  acquired  cold  will  become  more  weighty 
and  prefs  moft  in  a  particular  point.  Thus  it  may  defcend 
through  the  more  rarified  and  yieldingfubjacent  region,  the 
firft  drops  piercing  and  making  a  channel  may  facilitate  the 
defcent  of  the  vapour,  till  it  puts  on  what  Stuart  calls  a 
fword-like  appearance.  The  agitation  caufed  by  defcend- 
Ing  will  accelerate  condenfation,  which  together  with  the 
drops  paffmg  through  the  vapour  in  this  channel,  may  at 
every  ftop  in  the  paffage  be  wailing  the  vapour,  by  taking 
it  up  into  lefl'er  malfes  of  water  till  it  ends  in  a  point, 
which  it  will  in  this  cafe  naturally  do,  becaufe  the  fwifteft 
motion  down  is  in  the  center  of  the  pointing  body. 

Such  a  fpout  may  increafe  fo  as  to  form  mafles  of  wa- 
ter, the  fubftance  of  the  cloud,  all  obftacles  removed,  paf- 
fmg down  in  greater  abundance,  and  ftill  more  fwiftly 
condenfing;  or  it  may  prefently  ceafe  when  it  has  but  juft 
appeared,  or  inftead  of  this,  make,  as  it  were,  feveral  at- 
tempts for  completing  a  fpout,  the  vapour  teat  advancing 
and  retiring  alternately,  but  which  finally  fail,  without 
producing  effedt.  Thus  it  has  done,  as  it  feems,  when 
the  cloud  has  not  had  fufficient  fupplies  for  it  to  fucceed 
in  a  complete  and  opaque  Ipout.  Such  are  the  appear- 
ances of  Mr.  Stuart's  figures,  &c.      The  obliquity  of  the 

pointing 


WIND  AND  WATER-SPOUTS,  &c.      339 

pointing  is  owing  to  the  coiirfe  of  the  air,  as  the  bend  is 
to  two  different  ones  at  different  heights. 

The  next  thing  propoled  to  be  coniidered,  was  the 
great  roar  that  attends  a  complete  ipout  while  it  lafls;  and 
it  is  the  fame  as  that  in  catarads  or  falls  of  water  from 
great  eminencies.  This  kind  of  roar  coidd  not  exift  in  any- 
way of  afcent,  being  very  different  from  that  of  a  whirl- 
wind, which  is  no  other  than  that  of  any  other  (Irong  wind. 

Mr.  Stuart's  figures  of  the  great  fpouts  are  drawn  with 
the  appearance  of  a  bufh  round  their  bafes  :  The  cafe  is 
fuch,  that  great  falls  of  waters  muft  make  a  proportion- 
able fpray ;  fo  that  the  appearance  is  natural,  and  indeed 
a  necelfary  confequence.  It  riles  up  from  the  foot  of  the 
fpout  and  falls  back  in  a  parabolic  manner  into  the  fea. 
As  was  faid  of  the  roar  jufl  now,  fo  it  may  be  faid  of  this, 
that  it  could  not  have  exilled  in  any  conceivable  way  of 
afcent ;  while  on  the  contrary  it  is  perfeftly  agreeable  to 
nature  on  the  principle  of  defcent.  It  continues  the  whole 
time  of  a  large  fpout,  increafing  and  diminifhing  as  that 
does. 

The  appearance  of  a  break  or  partition  in  the  trunk  of 
the  fpout,  at  the  top  of  the  bufh,  is  a  very  curious  phe- 
nomenon :  It  is  not  real  but  apparent,  and  could  not  have 
happened  without  the  bufh  ;  it  being  caufed  by  a  refrac- 
tion of  rays  from  the  drops  that  conflitute  the  top  of  the 
bufli;  whence  a  divergency  and  fo  much  lofs  of  viiion. 

In  great  fpouts  there  is  alfo  a  pillar-like  appearance,  be- 
ing a  part  of  the  trunk  within  the  bufh,  and  by  another 
refraction  through  the  fide  of  the  bufli ;  by  which  it  ap- 
pears much  bigger  than  it  is,  and  limited  in  altitude  by 
the  break.  The  three  lafl:  are  agreeable  to  the  laws  of 
optics;  and  all  the  five  ^xirticulars  being  attendants  on  the 
greater  or  the  fmaller  fpouts,  are  to  me  undeniable  evi- 
dences of  the  univerfal  defcent  of  waters  in  thefe  bodies. 
1  pals  from  Mr.  Stuart's  figures  to  that  of  Mr.  Maine, 
which  is  not  lefs  curious. 

Mr. 


340        CONJECTURES    concerning 

Mr.  Maine,  in  the  fame  philofophical  tranfadlons,  has 
given  us  the  figure  of  a  fpout  that  fell  at  Topfliam,  near 
Exeter.  He  has  depi£lecl  it  in  the  aft  of  flriking  a  boat  as 
it  paffed  a  creek  ;  from  the  bottom  of  which  he  has  drawn 
a  rebound  of  the  whole  body  of  the  fpout  projefted  from 
it  to  a  large  diftance  ;  evidently  proving  the  defcent  :  And 
which,  while  he  is  arguing  for  the  afcent,  it  would  have 
much  become  him  to  have  accounted  for,  and  to  have  fhown 
how  it  agreed  with  the  do£lrine  of  afcent.  The  fpout 
proceeding  paffed  on  to  the  land,  and  brake  off  the  limbs 
of  a  tree,  beat  the  thatch  off  of  a  houfe,  and  did  perhaps 
various  other  damage  ;  but  we  hear  nothing  of  its  carry- 
ing up  any  of  the  light  fubftances  and  dropping  them  at 
great  diftances,  far  from  any  environs  of  the  place,  which 
it  would  moft  certainly  have  done  had  there  been  a  whirl- 
wind, or  any  fupernal  fudlion  employed  in  the  operation. 

The  fupernal  fudlion  which  fome  have  mentioned  I 
fuppofe  I  may  pafs  over  without  more  than  the  bare 
mention  of  it,  but  whirlwinds  we  know  there  are  fre- 
quently, and  fome  of  confiderable  ftrength ;  fo  that  it  be- 
ing the  general  opinion  that  fpouts  are  formed  by  them, 
it  may  not  be  amifs  to  examine  a  little  what  force  they 
may  reafonably  be  allowed  to  have,  and  the  limits  of  it. 

Their  genuine  caufe,  fuppofmg  them  to  be  natural  pro- 
du£tions,  is  no  other  than  the  afcent  of  the  heated  and 
confequently  lighter  air,  at  the  furface,  into,  or  through 
the  colder  and  confequently  heavier  regions  of  the  atmof- 
phere  above  :  And  in  proportion  to  the  different  degrees 
of  heat  in  one  of  thefe,  and  cold  in  the  other,  may  the 
ftrength  of  thefe  be,  but  no  more. 

Dr.  Arbuthnot,  in  his  treatife  on  the  air,  tells  us,  that 
the  rarification  of  the  air  in  the  hotteft  day  in  fummer 
renders  it  but  one-tenth  lighter  than  that  of  the  coldeft  in 
winter,  or  in  words  to  this  purpofe,  if  1  remember  right, 
for  I  have  not  his  book  by  me.  Suppofmg  then  the  up- 
per region  the  fame  at  all  times  as  the  lower  one  in  win- 
ter 


WIND  AND  WATER-SPOUTS,  &c.      341 

ter  when  a  whirlwind  happens,  it  cannot  have  any  great- 
er force  than  the  weight  of  one-tenth  of  the  atmofphere, 
and  confidering  the  refiftance  to  its  rifing  which  it  muft  en- 
counter, and  the  fridtion  by  the  way,  not  lb  much ;  by  which 
the  ftrength  may  not  be  equal  to  three  feet  of  water.  It  is 
undoubtedly  nine  parts  in  ten  too  weak  to  make  a  vacuum, 
and  having  a  column  of  water  two  miles  high  to  fupport, 
befides  the  additional  neceffity  of  ftill  more  force  to  drive 
it  fwiftly  up,  would  require  an  atmofphere  two  thoufand 
times  more  weighty  than  ours  to  raife  water  to  the  clouds. 

Mr.  Stuart  lays  he  faw  the  water  afcend  in  the  heart  of 
a  fpout;  which  feems  to  have  been  an  unlucky  expreffion. 
The  bodies  of  large  fpouts  are  too  grofs  and  opaque  for 
any  one  to  fee  to  the  center  of  them ;  and  no  one  has  ever 
pretended  to  have  feen  water  afcend  in  the  fmall  ones. 
His  imagination  therefore  muft  have  been  too  ftrong  for 
any  one  to  confide  in,  lb  far  as  was  he  prejudiced  ;  and 
at  leaft  one  of  his  views  was  to  prove  the  afcent  ;  which, 
had  he  underftood  nature  in  a  tolerable  degree,  he  would 
have  renounced. 

That  there  is  a  gyrating  appearance  in  the  great  fpouts, 
feems  to  have  been  matter  of  obfervation  ;  nor  is  there  any 
improbability  in  the  thing.  As  air  palhng  up  in  whirl- 
winds, fo  water,  or  air,  palling  down  may  gyrate;  and  no 
doubt  it  does.  The  cafe  is,  that  fome  have  imagined  the 
gyration  to  have  been  upwards :  but  the  appearance  of  gyra- 
tion up  or  down  may  eafily  deceive,  as  any  one  mav  be 
convinced  by  obferving  the  fwift  turning  of  artificial 
fcrews,  in  which  the  diredion  will  appear  as  the  pcrfon  is 
difpofed  to  fancy  it. 

We  are  told  the  Chinefe  failors  anfwer  to  the  queftion, 
what  are  you  afraid  of  in  fpouts,  is,  that  they  may  break 
in  their  decks.  Which  Ihows  they  take  them  to  be  de- 
fccnts ;  and  their  knowledge  is  from  obfervation  and  ex- 
perience. 

I  conclude  with  one  fliort  remark,  viz.  That  to  be- 
lieve water  afcends  in  thefe  bodies,  to  the  region  of  the 

X  X  clouds. 


342         CONJECTURES    coNCERNiNa 

clouds,  Is  virtually  to  admit  of  real  and  effential  miracle, 
without  fufEcient  proof;  and  contrary  to  every  idea  we 
can  form,  of  a  divinely  wife  intention. 

Tornados  and  hurricanes  I  take  to  be  of  the  fame  gene- 
ral nature,  although  differing  in  fome  circumftances  and 
appearances. 

By  the  term  tornado,  or  wind-fpout,  I  mean  a  violent 
wind  which  has  been  obferved  in  thefe  northern  colonies 
a  few  times  fince  they  were  difcovered  and  fettled  by  our 
people.  But  perhaps  no  part  of  the  terraqeous  globe  is  en- 
tirely free  from  fomething  of  the  like  kind,  as  the  atmof- 
phere  is  every  where  liable  to  fimilar  commotions. 

The  Spanifli  term  of  tornado,  feems  to  have  been  chiefly 
ufed  for  a  violent  florm  at  fea,  of  larger  extent  than  what 
I  am  about  to  explain,  which  is  of  a  more  contracted  na- 
ture, and  confined  to  a  narrow  fphere  of  adtion  ;  fo  that 
it  requires  a  particular  and  fignificant  name,  fuch  as  wind- 
fpout,  till  a  more  fuitable  one  is  found  for  it. 

Defcription  of  one.  It  begins  of  a  fudden ;  more  or 
lefs  of  clouds  having  been  drawn  together,  a  fpout  of  wind 
coming  from  it  flrikes  the  ground  in  a  round  fpot  of  a  few 
rods  or  perches  diameter,  with  a  prone  diredtion,  in  the 
courfe  of  the  wind  of  the  day,  and  proceeds  thus  half  a 
mile  or  a  mile.  The  pronenefs  of  its  defcent  makes  it  re- 
bound from  the  earth,  throwing  fuch  things  as  are  move- 
able before  it,  but  fome  fideways  from  it.  A  vapour,  milt 
or  rain  defcends  with  it,  by  which  the  path  of  it  is  mark- 
ed and  wet. 

1  fhall  produce  the  Inftance  of  that  at  Leicefter,  a  towa 
about  fifty  miles  from  Boflon,  a  few  years  fince,  which, 
being  more  violent  than  ufual,  may  give  fome  idea  of  the 
thing. 

It  happened  in  the  month  of  July,  on  a  hot  day  about 
four  o'clock  p.  M.  A  few  clouds  having  gathered  weft- 
ward  and  coming  over  head,  a  fudden  motion  of  their, 
running  together  in  a  point  being  obferved,  immediately 
a  fpout  of  wind  ftruck  the  ground  at  the  weltern  end  of  a 

houfe 


WIND  AND  WATER-SPOUTS,  &c.     343 

houfe,  and  inftantly  carried  it  away,  with  a  negro  fellow 
in  it,  who  was  afterwards  found  dead  in  the  path  of  it. 
Two  men  and  a  woman,  by  the  breach  of  the  floor,  fell 
into  the  cellar  ;  one  man  was  driven  forceably  up  into  the 
chimney-corner.  Thefe  were  preferved,  though  much 
bruifed;  they  were  wet  with  a  vapour  or  mift,  as  were  the 
remains  of  the  floor  and  the  whole  path  of  the  fpout. 

This  wind  raifed  boards,  timbers,  &c.  and  carried  thera 
before  it.  A  joifl:  was  found  on  one  end  driven  near  three 
feet  into  the  ground.  I  imagine  the  fpout  took  it  in  its 
elevated  ftate  and  drove  it  forceably  down.  By  what  I 
can  learn  of  its  procedure,  it  continued  but  three  or  four 
feconds  of  time  in  a  place,  pafling  along  with  the  celerity 
of  a  middling  wind,  conftantly  declining  in  ftrength  till 
it  ceafed. 

There  feems  to  have  been  fuch  a  gufl:  as  this  at  cape 
Cod,  about  forty  years  ago,  of  which  I  received  an  ac- 
count from  two  men  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  place.  It  came  on  of  a  fudden,  and  was  fo  violent  that 
it  threw  down  a  young  woman  who  happened  to  be  in  the 
way  of  it;  flie  was  forced  to  lay  hold  on  the  bufties  which 
happened  to  be  within  her  reach,  to  prevent  her  being  carri- 
ed away  by  it.  It  pafled  a  pond  of  water,  and  the  people 
wondered  it  did  not  fuck  up  the  water,  as  they  conceived  it 
to  be  a  water-fpout,  but  it  did  not.  The  young  woman 
was  however  wet  with  the  vapour  that  accompanied  it. 

Of  Hurricanes^  particularly  thofe  of  the  Wejl-lndia  Iflands. 

To  account  fatisfacflorily  for  thefe  convulfions  of  our 
atmofphere,  requires  a  greater  number  and  more  circum- 
flantial  obfervations  than  we  are  at  prefent  furniflied  with; 
fo  that  all  that  can  at  prefent  be  faid  of  their  origin  and 
caufes  muft  be  very  conjedlural.  However,  fince  an  at- 
tempt to  explain  them  may  give  occafion  to  further  and 
more  exa£l  obfervations,  I  ftiall  proceed  to  off'er  my  pre- 
fent thoughts  concering  them. 

X  X  2  I  believe 


J44        COJECTURES   coNCEUNrNo 

I  believe  thofe  of  the  Weft-India  illands  to  be  owing  to 
fome  occafional  obftrudion  in  the  ufual  and  natural  pro- 
cedure ot  the  equatorial  trade.  This  I  conje£ture  from 
the  more  than  ufual  preceding  calms.  In  the  natural  courfe 
of  this  trade  the  air  rifes  up  in  the  line  and  paffes  off  to- 
wards the  poles,  and,  in  the  more  contradfed  degrees  of  the 
greater  latitudes,  proves  the  courfe  of  their  weftern  trades  t 
So  that  could  this  afcent  be  prevented  through  the  whole 
circle  of  that  zone,  there  would  be  no  more  wefterly  winds 
in  thefe  latitudes  than  any  others. 

Over  violent  rains  and  cold  naturally  tend  to  check  the 
afcent  of  air  out  of  this  circle,  rather  making  it  defcend. 
And  as  there  are  annual  rains  in  the  equator  over  againft 
thofe  iflands,  and  in  fome  years  more  than  others,  it  is  eafy 
to  conceive  fuch  an  eifetf,  and  the  confequences.  Great 
clouds  and  over-much  vapour  generate  cokl  and  weight,. 
while  at  the  fame  time  the  rains  are  beating  down  the  air ; 
and  as  thefe  prevent  the  rifmg  of  the  air  out  of  the  line, 
fo  they  hinder  its  uiual  progrels  to  it  from  the  tropics  on 
both  fides.  Thus  calms  muft  take  place  ;  by  which  the 
natives  ufed  to  predidl  approaching  hurricanes,  without 
underftanding  the  reafon  of  the  thing. 

Much  of  calms  in  the  inter-tropical  climates  caufe  ra- 
rifa£tions,  and  afcents  of  air  into  the  upper  regions,  inftead 
of  its  being  carried  to  the  line  to  be  difpofed  of  in  the 
grand  circulation  of  the  atmofphere;  this  Vx^U  be  the  cafe 
more  efpecially  among  the  iflands,  which  Increafe  the  heat 
of  the  atmofphere.  Then  by  thefe  afcents  there  will  be  ac- 
cumulations of  air  above,  which  becoming  cold  in  the  high- 
er regions  will  acquire  a  greater  fpeciiic  weight,  and  be  dif- 
pofed to  defcend  on  the  firft  giving  way  of  the  more  rari- 
fied  and  yielding  fubjacent  region  ;  and  this  will  be  the 
cafe  when  there  happens  not  to  be  fufficient  motions  of 
air  in  the  middle  region  to  keep  fmooth  and  even  the  ftra- 
tums  of  the  more  and  the  lei's  rarified  regions  ;  and  fo 
prevent  particular  portions  and  places  frooi  bending  down- 
wards : 


WIND  AND  WATER-SPOUTS,  &c.      345 

wards  ;  and  it  Is  this  alone  that  does  prevent  it.  l]y  a 
faikire  in  this,  a  delcent  once  begun,  the  coniequences 
cannot  be  prevented:  The  heavy  quantity  above  will  con- 
tinue to  deicend  till  all  the  upper  cold  regions  are  exone- 
rated to  many  hundreds  of  miles  round  ;  and  all  their 
contents  fhifted  into  the  place  of  the  rarihed  and  lighter 
air  below. 

Such  are  my  ideas  of  the  caufes  and  operations  of  a 
hurricane  in  thole  climates.  I  have  only  to  add  here,  that 
the  rains  in  thefe  violent  ftorms  are,  as  I  think,  a  flron'r 
confirmation  ot  the  doctrine  of  defcent;  as  they  are  in  that 
kind  of  hurricane  called  by  lailors  the  Ox's  Eye,  on  the 
coaft of  Guinea;  and  the  like  happens  under  various  names 
in  different  parts  of  our  globe.  Even  the  v^'ind  in  our 
thunder-gulk  is  from  defcent ;  the  air  in  the  cloud  being 
rendered  denfe  and  weighty,  defcends,  and  flows  in  the  di- 
redtion  of  the  wind  of  the  time,  and  with  the  more  vio- 
lence, by  the  warm  air  at  the  furface  giving  way  to  it. 
Thefe  are  fometimes  ftrong,  but  feldom  attended  with 
danger  or  damage. 

What  objedions  may  be  raifed  againff  thefe  opinions, 
fhall  be  candidly  attended  to  ;  in  the  mean  time  there  is 
one  obje<£lion  that  muft  be  obviated,  the  argument  being 
fomewhat  intereiled  in  it.     It  is  as  follows. 

Having  exprelfed  my  opinion  that  hurricanes  and  tor- 
nados or  wind  fpouts  have  the  fame  general  nature,  while 
we  fse  a  great  difparity  in  their  magnitude  and  procedure; 
fome  explanation  leems  necelfary  to  prevent  miflakes  ;  I 
think  a  little  confideration  of  the  place,  climate,  and  cir- 
cumftances  may  remove  the  difficulty. 

The  earth  is  an  oblate  fpheroid,  its  diameter  many  miles 
greater  at  the  equator  than  at  the  poles,  caufed  by  its  di- 
urnal centrifugal  force.  If  this  then  has  fo  great  an  effed 
on  terraqueous  matter,  it  cannot  have  lei's  on  our  air,  but 
it  any  difference,  rather  more;  efpecially  if  we  confider, 
that  the  atmolphere  makes  a  larger  diameter,  and  yet  re- 
volves 


34^       CONJECTURES   concerning 

volves  in  the  fame  time,  fo  that  its  centrifugal  force  muft 
be  proportionably  greater.  The  diurnal  motion  of  the 
earth  tends  to  throw  a  vaft  furplus  of  air  on  the  equator, 
by  which  there  is  probably  more  air  between  the  tropics 
than  on  the  reft  of  the  globe.  But  this  is  a  matter  of  con- 
jedlure  not  to  be  perceived  by  any  fort  of  preflure  any  more 
than  by  the  barometer,  for  reafons  obvious  to  thoie  con- 
verfant  in  the  nature  and  effect  of  the  feveral  principles. 
However  it  might  not  be  amifs  to  obferve  whether  there 
be  any  difterence  in  the  height  of  the  mercury  before  any 
of  thefe  ftorms.     But  to  return. 

Although  the  air  in  the  intert-roplcal  latitudes  is  in  the 
general  lighter  than  in  the  remote  ones,  yet  when  the 
upper  air  has  obtained  a  paffage  downward,  it  being  vaft 
in  quantity,  and  occupying  great  fpace,  it  will  be  long  in 
accelerating  and  pafhng  down.  The  paflage  is  long,  fo 
that  it  will  gain  a  great  deal  of  the  force  we  find  it  has  by 
the  length  of  defcent.  Neither  will  the  middle  region  be 
difpofed  to  fhut  up  without  a  brifk  wind  in  it,  before  the 
whole,  even  to  remote  regions,  is  difcharged  through  the 
large  hiatus,  as  before  mentioned  and  now  repeated,  to 
account  for  the  duration  and  extent  of  thefe  otherwife 
wonderful  winds,  with  fuch  unrelenting  violence. 

Far  different  is  the  cafe  of  the  high  latitude  tornados  in 
their  circumftances  and  their  manner,  although  agreeing 
in  their  general  nature.  The  centrifugal  force  here  has 
extremely  little  effecft,  unlefs  to  caft  the  atmofphere  to- 
ward the  equator  inftead  of  raifing  or  increafing  its  quan- 
tity over  any  given  place  on  either  fide.  Beiides  there 
is  the  attradlion  of  the  fun,  moon,  and  all  the  other  pla- 
nets for  ever  within  the  tropics  attracting  the  atmofphere 
that  way  and  leftening  the  height  of  the  high  latitude  at- 
mofphere, which  therefore  may  be  fuppofed  not  a  fourth 
fo  high  from  the  furface  as  that. 

Since  then  the  atmofphere  is  vaftly  lefs  in  height,  and 
alfo  much  lefs  in  quantity  than  toward  the  line,  the  defcents 

muft 


WIND  AND  WATER-SPOUTS,  &c.       347 

muft  naturally  be  very  different.  Here  are  no  accumula- 
tions aloft.  The  quantity  ready  for  a  difcharge  downward 
is  vaftly  lefs,  and  the  palTage  narrow  and  contracted ;  and 
by  the  alinoft  conftant  motions  of  air,  were  there  more 
fupplies  it  would  foon  fhut  up.  Befides  there  is  little  apt- 
nels  to  flow  from  furrounding  regions  by  reafon  of  the 
fmallnefs  of  their  depth,  &c.  And  yet  fo  great  is  the  fpe- 
cific  weight  of  what  defcends,  that  the  firft  aflault  has  been 
known  to  equal  the  greateft  violence  of  the  proper  hurri- 
canes in  their  moft  powerful  moments. 


N°  XLI. 

The  ivhole  Procefs  of  the  S'llk-Worm-,  from  the  Egg  to  the 
Cocon ;  communicated  to  Dr,  John  Morgan,  Phyjlci- 
an  at  Philadelphia.,  in  tivo  Letters  frotn  Mejfrs  Hare 
and  Skinnfr,  Silk  Merchants  in  London^  'July  ijy 
1774,  and  February  24,   1775. 

^I^j.^"'^  TT  is  fome  time  fince  we  were  honored  with  your 
Jl  efteemed  letter  of  27th  September  laft.  We 
fhould  not  have  delayed  fo  long  acknowledging  its  receipt, 
if  it  had  been  in  our  power  to  have  fent  you  before  this 
time  the  manufcript  you  will  receive  herewith  j  but  it  is 
only  lately  we  have  been  able  to  procure  it  from  one  of 
the  firft  houfes  in  Italy.  It  contains  an  exadt  account  of 
the  Italian  moft  improved  method  of  making  raw  filk. 
We  flatter  ourfelves  it  may  prove  of  fome  fervice  to  your 
new  eftablinied  manufadlorj',  for  whofe  ufe  folely  we  fent 
for  it  to  Italy. 

The  large  quantity  of  raw  filk  that  continually  arrives 
from  China  every  year,  being  moftly  of  a  round  or  large 
fize,    will  a  good  deal  interfere  with  the  fale  of  yours, 

provided 


348  Of    the    SILK-WORM. 

provided  you  make  it  of  the  fame ;  therefore  we  by  all 
means  recommend  your  reeling  yours  of  the  finenefs  of 
five  to  fix  cocons,  no  coarfer  at  any  rate  if  avoidable. 
And  we  further  beg  leave  to  recommend  your  giving  or- 
ders to  your  workmen  to  be  extremely  careful  in  aflbrting 
the  filk,  obferving  that  all  that  is  put  into  one  parcel  be 
exa£lly,  if  pofhble,  of  the  fame  finenefs  ;  for  if  it  is  not, 
it  will  very  much  prejudice  its  fale;  a  negledl  in  this  par- 
ticular is  complained  of  in  all  the  filk  that  has  hitherto 
been  received  from  America.  If  the  filk,  which  was  very 
good  in  itfelf  that  we  received  from  Georgia,  had  been 
properly  afTorted,  we  certainly  fhould  have  fold  it  i/(5  or 
if.  per  lb.  better  than  we  did.  If  you  reel  your  filk  fine 
the  China  filk  rather  promotes  its  fale  than  otherwife,  as 
it  is  neceflary  to  have  fine  filk  to  work  up  with  that  of 
China. 

We  fliall  at  all  times  be  very  ready  to  communicate 
to  you  any  intelligence  in  our  power. 
We  are,  with  refped:, 
Sir, 

Your  mofl:  obedient  fervants, 

HARE  &  SKINNER. 

Cha^.I.  Of  the  Silk-Worm. 

THE  perfon  who  purpofes  raifing  a  quantity  of  filk- 
worms,  and  preferving  good  eggs,  muft  begin  a  year  be- 
fore hand.  He  muft  choofe  a  certain  number  of  good 
cocons,  or  filk  cods,  the  fuperficies  of  which,  he  flightly 
pierces  with  a  needle  and  thread  and  firings  them  by 
fcores  ;  which  done,  he  hangs  them  up  in  a  convenient 
room,  this  being  the  moft  proper  pofition  for  them.  Af- 
ter the  moths  or  butterflies  contained  in  the  cocon,  have 
eaten  their  way  through  their  natural  inclofure,  (which  is 
generally  about  four  days  after  the  cocon  is  finilhed*)  you 

may 

'  Tt  happens  fometimes  tlie  butterfly  is  longer  before  its  birth,  i.  e.  from  IJ  to  30  days  if 
the  weather  is  chilly.     They  generally  come  out  in  the  morning. 


Of    the    SILK-WORM.  349 

anay  place  them  on  a  linen  cloth  difpofed  vertically,  as 
againft  a  wall,  or  on  a  line,  &c.  where  they  couple  and 
are  joined  during  twenty-four  hours.  This  over,  the  fe- 
male lays  her  eggs  during  other  twenty-four  hours;  after 
"which  fhe  dies,  as  does  the  male  ;  this  their  fecond  life,  if 
I  may  be  permitted  the  term,  is  only  of  forty-eight  hours 
duration.  When  the  eggs  are  new  laid,  they  are  about 
the  bignefs  of  a  common  pin's  head,  and  of  a  ftraw  co- 
lour ;  by  degrees  they  become  black,  aflume  more  folidity, 
lollng  at  the  fame  time  part  of  their  bulk. 

When  they  are  arrived  at  this  point,  you  muft  feparatc 
them  from  the  cloth  ;  to  efFe£l  which,  you  muft  dip  them 
into  a  large  pan  filled  with  one  half  water  and  the  other 
half  wine,  rather  more  than  lukewarm  ;  when  your  cloth 
has  foaked  in  this  liquor  a  little  while,  you  may  feparate 
them  from  the  cloth  with  a  filver  fpoon  and  dry  them  in 
n  funny  place,  and  take  them  away  when  they  begin  to 
be  whitifti. 

When  you  have  thus  detached  your  eggs,  you  muft 
keep  them  till  the  next  year  in  a  cool  damp  place  to  pre- 
ferve  them  from  hatching  during  the  great  heat,  which 
would  ruin  the  projedt. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  fpring,  you  muft  obferve  vv^hen 
the  mulberry  tree  begins  to  put  forth  its  leaves,  which 
muft  be  your  fignal  to  expofe  your  eggs  in  a  very  warm 
place,  that  they  may  all  hatch  at  once,  otherwife  they 
would  only  hatch  by  little  and  little,  and  in  proportion  as 
each  individual  would  be  arrived  at  the  point  of  its  natu- 
ral maturity.  In  wliich  cafe  the  pains  required  to  fepa- 
rate their  different  clalfes  would  be  exceifive,  not  to  fay 
impoffible.  To  hatch  your  eg  !,s  you  muft  carry  them 
about  you  nine  or  ten  days,  keeping  them  in  your  bofom, 
or  other  parts  near  the  body;  in  the  night  you  may  put 
them  between  the  matrafles  of  the  bed.  You  may  like- 
wife  hatch  them  by  the  heat  of  an  oven,  but  this  method 
is  dangerous,  becaufe  you  may   poffibly  burn  the  worm 

Y  y  contained 


350  Of    the    SILK-WORM. 

contained  in  the  egg,  and  thereby  deflroy  all  your  future? 
hopes. 

II.  The  worm  is  entirely  black  at  its  birth,  and  is  about 
as  long  as  an  ant.  He  is  rolled  up  in  the  egg,  which 
other\A  ife  could  not  contain  him.  He  preferves  this  black 
colour  eight  or  nine  days.  After  your  worms  are  hatched 
you  mufi:  put  them  on  wicker  fhelvcs,  which  are  covered 
firft  with  paper  and  afterwards  with  a  bed  of  the  youngeil 
and  moft  tender  mulberry  leaves;  you  may  place  feveral 
ranges  of  them  in  the  fame  chamber,  one  above  another, 
provided  you  leave  at  leafi:  a  foot  and  a  half  between  each 
ranae  ;  that  the  fcaffolding  be  in  the  middle  of  the  room, 
and  that  your  wicker  fhelves  be  not  too  broad,  but  juft  fo 
as  to  reach  on  each  fide  conveniently  to  the  middle.  By 
degrees  the  worm  grows  and  requires  more  room.  It  muft 
be  your  care  to  thin  them,  and  keep  thofe  of  the  fame  fize 
as  near  as  you  can  on  one  row;  for  which  reafon  you  mufl: 
always  leave  fome  fl-^elves  vacant  for  that  purpofe. 

The  worm  continues  feeding  during  eight  days  after 
its  birth,  at  the  end  of  which  he  has  three  lines  in  length 
or  the  fourth  part  of  an  inch.  He  is  then  attacked  with 
his  firft  ficknefs,  which  confifts  in  a  kind  of  lethargic  fleep 
for  three  days  together,  during  which  fpace  he  changes 
his  fkin,   ftill  preferving  the  fame  bulk. 

This  fleep  being  over,  he  begins  to  eat  again  during 
five  days,  at  which  term  he  is  grown  to  the  fize  of  feven 
lines  in  length,  after  which  follows  a  fecond  ficknefs*,  in 
every  refpedl  like  the  former.  He  then  feeds  during  other 
five  days,  and  is  now  about  nine  lines  in  length,  when 
he  is  attacked  with  his  third  ficknefs;  which  over,  he  con- 
tinues to  eat  again  five  days  more,  which  are  followed  by 
his  fourth  ficknefs,  at  which  time  he  is  arrived  at  his  full 
growth,  i.  e.  about  fourteen  lines  in  length  and  two  in; 
diameter. 

He 

*  You  muft  obferve  that  thefe  fickneffcs  are  much  longer,  and  laft  ieven  or  eight  days  whcn> 
the  wcathtr  is  cold. 


Of    the    SILK-WORM.  351 

Tie  then  feeds  during  five  days  with  a  mod  voracious 
^appetite;  after  which  he  dildains  his  food,  becomes  tranf- 
parent  a  Uttle  on  the  yellow  caft,  and  leaves  his  filky 
traces  on  the  leaves  where  he  pafles;  thefe  figns  denote 
that  he  is  ready  to  begin  his  cocon. 

You  muft  then  furnifh  him  with  little  bufhes  of  heath, 
broom  or  other  like  twigs,  flicking  the  bundles  upright 
in  rows  between  the  fhelves,  and  forcing  them  a  little  that 
they  may  not  fall;  he  remains  ftill  two  days  to  climb  up 
the  twigs,  and  fettle  himfelf  on  a  good  place,  after  which 
he  begins  to  lay  the  foundation  of  his  lodge,  and  is  five 
days  in  fpinning  his  cocon.  He  remains  generally  about 
the  fpace  of  forty-feven  days. 

III.  You  muft  keep  your  worms  in  a  dry  place,  flielter- 
ed  and  fhut  up  clofe,  provided  it  be  not  too  hot.  If  the 
weather  be  cold  you  muft  make  a  fmall  fire.  When  you 
furnhh  them  with  leaves,  take  great  care  that  they  be 
thoroughly  dry  and  ftrew  them  lightly  over  your  worms. 
You  muft  obferve  to  take  away  their  dung  very  frequent- 
ly. When  the  worms  are  ready  to  mount  (in  order  to 
fpin)  if  the  weather  be  ftifllng  hot  attended  with  thunder, 
you  will  fee  them  in  a  languiftiing  condition;  your  care 
muft  then  be  to  revive  them,  which  is  effected  thus. 

Take  a  few  eggs  and  onions  and  fry  them  in  a  pan 
with  fome  ftale  hog's  lard,  the  ranker  the  better,  and 
make  pancake;  which  done,  carry  it  fmoaking  hot  into 
the  room  where  they  are  kept,  and  go  round  the  chamber 
with  it.  You  will  be  furprized  to  fee  how  the  fmell  revives 
them,  excites  thofe  to  eat  who  have  not  done  feeding,  and 
makes  the  others  that  are  ready  to  fpin,  climb  up  the  twigs. 

Thefe  little  creatures  require  a  great  deal  of  care  in  the 
management;  one  or  other  muft  attend  them  day  and 
night;  you  muft  be  very  dexterous  and  gentle  in  handling 
them  ;  and,  as  I  may  fay,  the  whole  fuccefs  depends  on  the 
care  you  obferve  and  pains  you  take  in  rearing  them. 

The  worms  cannot  fuifer  ftrong  fmells,  fuch  as  tobacco 

Y  y  2  and 


352  Of    tue    SILK-WORM. 

and  the  like,  for  which  reafon  you  muft  avoid  offending; 
their  delicate  organs. 

In  many  parts  of  Italy,  amongft  others  Romagna  and 
La  Marche  of  Ancona,  they  have  two  lilk  racoltas,  or  har- 
vefts.     They  keep  the  eggs  in  very  cool  places,  and  whea 
the  mulberry  tree  begins  to  bud  again  (for  during  the  ra— 
eolta  it  is  ftripped  of  its  leaves  for  food  for  the  worms) 
they  expofe  their  eggs  to  hatch.      Sometimes  they  give- 
roie  leaves  to  the  young  worms,  when  there  are  no  young, 
mulberry  leaves.     The  cocons  of  this  fecond  racolta  are: 
rather  inferior  to  thofe  of  the  firft.     The  filk  worm  is  ge- 
nerally fourteen  lines  in  length  and  two  in  diameter  and: 
fix  and  two-fevenths  in  circumference.     He  is  either  of 
a  milk  or  pearl  colour  or  blackifh;  thefe  laft  are  the  beft.. 
His  body  is  divided  into  feven  rings,  to  each  of  which  are 
joined  two  very  Ihort  feet.     He  has  a  fmall  point  like  a. 
thorn,  exadly    above   the  anus.     The  fubftance    which, 
forms  the  filk,  is  in  their  ftomach,  which  is  very  long;, 
"wound    up  as  it  were   on  two  fpindlcs  and  furrounded 
with  a  gum,  commonly  yellow,  fometimes  white,  not  otten 
greenilii.     When  the  worm  fpins  his  cocon,  he  winds  off 
a  thread  from  each  of  his  fpindles,  and  joins  them,  after- 
wards,  by  means  of  two  hooks  which  are  placed  in  his. 
mouth;  fo  that  the  cocon  is  compofed  of  a  double  thread. 
Having  opened  a  filk  worm  you  may  take  out  the  fpin-  ~ 
dies  which  are  folded  up  in  three  plaits,  and  on  flretching 
them  out  and  drawing  each  extremity,   you  may  extend 
them  to  near  two  ells  in  length.     If  you  then  fcrape  the 
thread  fo  flretched  out  with  your  nail,  you  will  fcratch  off 
the  gum,  which  is  very  much  like  bees-wax,  and  performs, 
the  fame  office  to  the  filk  it  covers,  as  a  gold  leaf  does  to  the 
ingot  of  f'llver  it  furrounds,  when  drawn  out  by  the  wire- 
drawer  ;   the  filk  then  remains  of  a  pearl  colour.      This, 
thread  which  is  extremely  flrong  and  even  is  about  the; 
thicknefs  of  a  middling  pin. 

Three  things  very  remarkable  in  this  infed,  are, 

I.  They 


Of    the    SILK-WORM.  3:^3] 

1.  They  defcribe  a  femicircle  in  eating. 

2.  Their  excrement  has  perfedily  the  form  of  a  mul- 
berry. 

3.  They  have  no  fex  before  their  metamorphofis. 

Chap.  II.    Of  the  Cocons. 

I.  IT  is  ahnoft  a  general  rule  to  wait  fix  or  feven  days 
after  all  the  cocons  leem  to  be  formed,  before  you  take 
them  off  the  boughs  in  order  to  give  the  worms  time  to 
bring  them  to  perfection.  It  is  then  proper  from  that  time 
to  give  fome  air  to  the  room  in  which  you  have  kept  them, 
in  order  to  diffipate  a  confiderable  dampnefs  which  the- 
worms  exhale  on  their  mounting,  (when  they  have  not 
been  well  fed  and  kept,  for  when  they  have  been  proper- 
ly nurfed  this  dampnefs  is  not  to  be  found)  and  which  is 
of  great  detriment  to  the  cocons,  either  by  rotting  them, 
rendering  them  foft,  or  covering  them  with  fpots. 

The  cocons  may  be  divided  into  two  general  claffes,  the 
white  and  the  yellow,  in  the  yellow  you  meet  with  all  the 
fhades  from  a  bright  yellow  diminlihing  at  laft  to  white,, 
ibme  few  are  of  a  pale  green.  We  reckon  nine  forts  of 
Gocons,  viz. 

1.  The  good  cocons  are  thofe  which  are  brought  to  their 
perfection,   ftrong  and  little,  and  not  at  all  fpotted. 

2.  The  pointed  cocons  are  thoi'e,  one  of  whofe  extre- 
mities rites  up  in  a  point.  After  having  afforded  a  little 
filk,  the  point,  which  is  the  weaker  part,  breaks  or  tears, 
and  it  is  impoffible  to  continue  winding  that  cocon  any 
longer,  becaui'e  when  the  thread  comes  round  to  the  hole 
it  is  of  confequence  broke. 

3.  The  cocalons  are  a  little  bigger  than  the  other,  yet 
they  do  not  contain  more  lilk,  becaufe  the  contexture  is 
not  fo  ftrong.  In  winding  they  are  to  be  feparated  from 
the  reft,  becaufe  they  require  to  be  wound  in  cooler  water, 
other, vile  they  furze  out  in  winding. 

4.  The 


354  Of    the    SILK-WORM. 

4.  The  dupions,  or  douple  cocons,  are  fo  called  becaufe 
they  contain  fometimes  two  and  fometimes  three  worms, 
who  have  jointly  formed  one  fingle  cocon.  They  inter- 
lace their  threads,  for  which  reafon  they  are  to  be  kept 
afunder  from  the  reft;  they  make  the  filk  we  call  dupions. 

5.  The  foufflons  are  cocons  very  imperfed,  whofe  con- 
texture is  loofe,  fometimes  to  that  degree  that  they  are 
tranfparent,  and  bear  the  fame  proportion  to  the  others, 
as  a  gauze  to  a  fattin.     Thefe  cannot  be  wound. 

6.  The  perforated  cocons  are  fo  called,  becaufe  they  have 
a  hole  at  one  end,  for  which  reafon  they  alfo  cannot  be 
wound, 

7.  The  calcined  cocons  are  thofe  whofe  worm,  after  the 
formation  of  the  cocon,  is  attacked  with  a  ficknefs  which 
fometimes  petrifies  it,  and  at  others  reduces  it  to  a  fine 
white  powder,  without  in  the  leaft  endamaging  the  filk  ; 
on  the  contrary,  thefe  cocons  produce  more  filk  than  the 
others,  becaufe  the  worm  is  confiderably  lighter.  They 
are  to  be  diftinguifhed  by  the  noife  the  petrified  worm 
makes  when  you  fliake  the  cocon.  In  Piedmont  they  fell 
for  half  as  much  again  as  the  others.  It  is  very  rare  to 
fee  a  parcel  of  25 lb.  of  them  at  a  time  :  6t^ lb.  of  thefe 
cocons  have  produced  i  lb.  i  oz.  of  fine  filk  of  five  to  fix 
cocons. 

8.  The  good  choquette  confifts  in  thofe  cocons  whofe 
worm  dies,  before  he  has  brought  it  to  its  perfedion. 
They  are  to  be  known  by  the  worms  fticking  to  one  fide 
of  the  cocon,  which  is  eafily  to  be  perceived  when  on 
fhaking  it  you  do  not  hear  the  chryfalis  rattle.  Thefe 
cocons  are  of  as  fine  filk  as  the  others,  but  they  are  to  be 
wound  feparately  becaufe  they  are  fubjed  to  furze  out,  and 
the  filk  has  not  fo  bright  a  colour,  neither  is  it  io  firong 
and  nervous. 

9.  The  bad  choquette  is  compofed  of  defedive  cocons, 
fpotted  or  rotten.  They  wind  many  of  thefe  cocons  to- 
gether. It  makes  a  very  foul  bad  qualified  filk  of  a  black- 
iih  colour.  II*  To 


Of    the    silk-worm.  3jj 

11.  To  know  whether  a  cocon  be  good  or  not  yoii  muft  ob- 
fcrve  if  it  be  firm  and  found,  or  not,  if  it  has  a  fine  grain, 
and  if  the  two  ends  are  round  and  ftrong.  The  cocons 
of  a  bright  yellow  yield  more  filk  than  the  others,  becaufe 
they  contain  a  greater  quantity  of  gum;  but  the  advan- 
tage accrues  to  the  winder  only,  becaufe  all  this  gum  is 
loll  in  the  dying.  For  which  reafon,  as  well  as  tor  cer- 
tain colours  they  take  better,  the  pale  filks  are  preferred, 
becaufe  having  lefs  gum  they  lofe  lefs  in  boiling. 

In  the  number  of  cocons  that  are  bought,  there  ought 
to  be  neither  fouffions,  nor  perforated  cocons ;  becaufe 
the  feller  is  obliged  to  keep  them  apart  and  to  fell  them 
as  fuch;  notwithftanding  which,  you  may  always  reckon 
on  half  profit  of  thefe  forts  that  remain  with  the  others, 
and  if  to  thefe  you  add  the  dupions  and  choquette,  you 
may  calculate  them  at  ten  per  cent. 

The  cocons  of  the  mountains  are  better  than  thofe  of 
the  plain ;  there  is  a  greater  quantity  of  white  amongft 
them.  'Tis  true  they  are  not  fo  large  as  thofe  of  the  plain, 
but  the  worm,  at  the  fame  time,  is  proportionably  lefs. 
The  reafon  of  which  is,  that  the  air  of  the  mountains  be- 
ing fharper,  the  worm  labours  with  greater  vigour.  They 
fucceed,  likewife,  better  in  the  dry  plains  than  in  the  damp 
and  marfhy  parts,  becaufe  the  leaf  is  more  nourilliing. 
Five  or  fix  days  after  the  cocon  has  been  detached  from 
the  branches,  it  is  your  bufinefs  to  prevent  the  birth  of 
the  worm,  who  would,  otherwife,  pierce  through  the  fliell, 
and  thereby  render  the  cocon  ufelefs.  To  prevent  which 
you  muft  put  your  cocons  in  long  fhallow  bafkets,  and 
fill  them  up  within  an  inch  of  the  top.  You  then  cover 
them  ■\  ith  paper  and-a  wrapper  over  that.  Thefe  bafkets 
are  to  be  difpofed  in  an  oven,  whofe  heat  is  as  near  as  can 
be  that  of  an  oven  from  which  the  bread  is  juft  drawn 
after  being  baked  After  your  cocons  have  remained 
therein  near  an  hour,  you  muft  draw  them  out,  and  to  fee 
whether  all  the  worms  are  dead,  draw  out  a  dupion  from 

the 


356  Or    THE    SILK-WORM. 

the  middle  of  your  bafket  and  open  It,  if  the  worm  be 
dead,  you  may  conclude  all  the  reft  are  fo  ;  becaufe  the 
contexture  of  the  dupion  being  ftronger  than  that  of  the 
other  cocons,  it  is  confequently  lefs  eafy  to  be  penetrated 
by  the  heat.  You  muft  obferve  to  take  it  from  the  middle 
of  the  bafket,  becaufe  in  that  part  the  heat  is  leaft  percep- 
tible ;  after  you  have  drawn  your  bafkets  from  the  oven, 
you  muft  firft  cover  each  of  them  vpith  a  woolen  blanket 
or  rug,  leaving  the  wrapper  befides,  and  then  you  pile 
them  one  on  the  other.  If  your  baking  has  fucceeded, 
your  woolen  cover  will  be  all  over  wet  with  a  kind  of  dew, 
the  thicknefs  of  your  little  finger.  If  there  be  lefs.  It  Is 
a  fign  your  cocons  have  been  too  much  or  too  little  baked. 
If  too  much  baked,  the  worm  being  over  dried,  cannot 
tranfpire  a  humour  he  no  longer  contains,  and  your  co- 
con  is  then  burnt.  If  not  enough  baked,  the  worm  has 
not  been  fuffidently  penetrated  by  the  heat  to  dlftll  the 
liquor  he  contains,  and  in  that  cafe  is  not  dead. 

You  muft  let  your  bafkets  ftand  thus  covered  five  or  fix 
hours  if  poffible,  in  order  to  keep  In  the  heat,  as  this  makes 
an  end  of  ftlfling  thofe  worms,  which  might  have  avoid- 
ed the  firft  impreflion  of  the  fire. 

You  are  likewife  to  take  great  care  to  let  your  cocons 
ftand  in  the  oven  the  time  that  is  neceflary ;  for  If  they 
do  not  ftand  long  enough  your  worm  is  only  ftunned  for 
a  time  and  will  afterwards  be  revived.  If  on  the  other 
hand,  you  leave  them  too  long  in  the  oven  you  burn 
them,  many  inftances  of  thefe  two  cafes  are  frequently  to 
be  met  with. 

It  is  a  good  fign  when  you  fee  fome  of  the  butterflies 
fpring  out  from  among  the  cocons  which  have  been  baked, 
becauie  you  may  be  certain  they  are  not  burnt.  For  if 
you  would  kill  them  all  to  the  laft  worm  you  would  burn 
many  cocons,  which  might  be  more  expofed  to  the  heat 
than  that  particular  worm. 

III.  Whea 


Of    the    silk-worm.  357 

III.  When  you  put  your  cocons  into  the  oven,  you  muft 
be  very  careful  in  picking  out  all  the  fpotted  ones,  other- 
wife  they  communicate  their  fpots  by  the  great  perfpirati- 
on  occafioned  in  them  by  the  heat.  If  you  have  a  parcel 
of  ftrong  and  another  of  weak  cocons,  and  you  can  only 
wind  a  part  of  them  frefli  (i.  e.  without  baking)  give  the 
preference  to  the  weak  cocons,  and  bake  your  rtrong  ones, 
becaufe  the  latter,  containing  more  gum,  fupport  the 
baking  much  better  and  fufFer  lefs  than  the  weak  ones. 

As  faft  as  the  cocons  you  buy  are  brought  in,  put  them 
in  balkets  and  expofe  them  to  the  fun,  if  it  fliines,  in  cafe 
your  oven  be  full,  in  order  at  lead  to  ftun  the  worm  and 
prevent  his  working  to  pierce  his  cocon  during  that  time. 

It  is  very  proper  likewife  that  they  be  a  little  in  the  air 
before  you  put  them  in  the  oven  ;  becaufe  the  peafants 
bring  them  in  bafkets  heaped  one  on  the  other,  which 
heats  them  and  renders  them  extremely  foft,  but  the  air 
brings  them  to  their  proper  tone  again. 

Sometimes  the  peafants  fell  you  the  cocons  ready  baked 
when  they  have  been  obliged  to  keep  them  fometime.  It 
is  eafy  to  know  them,  becaufe  the  worms  when  baked, 
being  dry,  make  a  louder  noife  on  rattling  them  than  when 
they  are  frefli. 

When  your  cocons  are  fully  baked,  and  have  flood  long 
enough,  you  muft  fpread  them  half  a  foot  thick  on  broad 
ozier  (belves,  w^hich  are  diftributed  into  as  many  ftories 
as  the  height  of  the  room  will  admit  of,  two  or  three  feet 
diftant  one  from  the  other;  taking  care  to  turn  them  every 
day,  and  to  change  their  places,  for  other  wife  there  are 
many  inconveniencies  that  would  arife  from  fuch  a  negled:. 
They  would  become  mouldy  and  the  moths  would  eat 
them.  Befides  this,  it  is  abfolutely  neceflary  in  order  to 
feparate  the  fpotted  cocons,  or  the  bad  choquette,  which 
would  fpread  to  all  the  cocons  that  are  near  them,  and 
muft  be  wound  immediately  to  prevent  their  damaging 
any  further. 

Z  z  The 


35&  Of    the    SILK-WORM: 

The  building  where  you  fpread  your  cocons  is  cairecf 
the  Coconiere,  and  confifts  of  one  or  more  large  rooms,  in 
which  are  diftributed  as  many  ranges  as  you  can  conve- 
niently place,  taking  care  that  the  fupporters  touch  nei-- 
ther  the  roof  nor  the  wall,  becaufe  if  there  were  any  rats  in 
the  Coconiere  they  would  come  down  the  poles,  and  de- 
ftroy  the  cocons,  they  being  very  greedy  of  the  worm  con- 
tained in  them. 

A  middling  cocon  has  about  thirteen  lines  in  its  great- 
er diameter,  by  eight  lines  the  leifer  diameter,  fome  are 
larger,  fome  are  fmaller;  but  this  is  the  general  fize. 
The  dupion  has  generally  fifteen  lines  great  diameter  by 
nine  leffer  diameter. 

The  cocon  is  compofed  of  feveral  flrata  or  furfaces  ap- 
plied one  on  the  other;  notwithftanding  they  all  commu- 
nicate, otherwife  it  would  be  impoffible  to  wind  them  off. 
It  is  an  eafy  matter  to  take  off  one  or  more  of  thefe  fur- 
faces,  the  uppermoft  of  which  is  coarfer,  lefs  gummed, 
and  higher  coloured  than  the  undermoft.  Finally,  thefe: 
furfaces  are  compofed  of  a  fine  fort  of  faliva,  whofe  tex- 
ture has  a  tolerable  refemblance  to  the  thin  fkin  you  find 
joined  to  the  infide  of  a  hen's  egg. 

The  cocons  produce  a  thread  of  a  very  unequal  length, 
you  may  meet  fome  that  yield  twelve  hundred  ells,  whilft 
others  will  fcarcely  afford  two  hundred  ells.  In  general 
you  may  calculate  the  produdion  of  a  cocon,  from  five- 
hundred  to  fix  hundred  ells  in  length. 

IV.  The  worm  or  chryfalis,  as  he  is  inclofed  in  his  co- 
con is  fhrunk  up  into  himfelf,  fo  that  it  is  but  half  as 
long  in  his  primitive  ftate,  but  it  is  on  the  contrary  as 
thick  again. 

He  is  of  a  cinnamon  colour,  and  full  of  liquor,  rather 
clear,  which  forms  the  feed  in  the  males,  and  the  eggs 
in  the  females.  Though  he  feems  to  be  infenfibie  in 
that  ftate,  yet  you  may  perceive  he  is  not  wholly  fo,  for 
on  piercing  him  with  a  pin  flightly,  you  will  fee  him 

move. 


Of    the    SILK-WORM.  359 

move,  and  we  make  ufe  of  thefe  experiments  to  fee  if 
they  have  been  killed  in  the  oven. 

The  worm  dries  the  older  it  grows,  fo  that  the  fame 
quantity,  or  the  lame  number  of  cocons  decreafes  daily  in 
-weight.  The  cocons  which  enclofe  the  male  butterfly 
have  more  filk  at  the  extremities,  than  thofe  which  con- 
tain the  females;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  perceive  this 
difference,  the  moft  Ikilful  connoiffeurs  will  miftake  at 
leaft  twenty  in  a  hundred. 

When  the  worm  wants  to  break  his  way  through,  he 
pierces  the  cocon,  firft  wetting  it  a  little  in  order  to  gnaw 
it  the  more  eafily  ;  he  has  then  only  to  ftrip  off  his  upper 
coat,  under  which  he  has  another  quite  white,  with  wings. 

When  he  comes  out,  his  wings,  which  at  firfl  appear 
very  fmall,  open  and  difplay  themfelves  by  little  and  lit- 
tle, and  are  entirely  at  liberty  in  an  hour  or  two.  As 
foon  as  born  he  feeks  a  female,  and  one  would  fay  he  is 
born  again  merely  to  propagate  his  fpecies,  for  he  expires 
a  very  little  time  after  having  performed  his  fundion. 

Chap.  III.     Of  Cocons  Royah  Perforated  Cocons  ^  and 

Soiifflons. 

THE  royal  cocons  are  thofe  which  you  have  kept  for 
feed.  The  worm  makes  a  hole  in  them  for  his  paffage, 
fo  that  they  cannot  be  v\'ound,  and  are  in  the  fame  clafs 
with  the  perforated  cocons. 

Neither  can  the  foufBons  be  wound,  becaufe  their  thread 
being  the  produce  of  a  weak,  fick  worm,  it  has  not  the 
gum  it  ought  to  contain.  Befides  they  cannot  be  wound 
off,  their  thread  being  interlaced  and  entangled. 

The  ufes  you  may  make  of  thefe  cocons  are  the  follow- 
ing ;  and  firlt  for  the 

SoufBons  ;  you  muft  let  them  boil  for  about  half  an 
hour  in  common  water,  after  which  you  muft  dry  them. 
When  they  are  quite  dry  you  muft  threfh  them  on  the 

Z  z   2  floor 


:,6o  Of    the    SILK-WORM. 

floor  with  a  flail,  to  bring  out  the  worm,  which  is  reduceS 
to  a(hes  by  the  fire  and  air.  Afterwards  you  put  them, 
on  a  diflaff  and  open  them ;  to  effedl  which  you  rnuft  take 
them  by  the  two  ends  and  ftretch  them  out  at  arms  length, 
you  may  then  faften  them  on  your  dillafF. 

2.  The  perforated  cocons ;  you  mufl  obferve  the  fame 
method  as  for  the  foufilons,  except  that  you  muft  let  them 
boil  three-quarters  inftead  of  halt  an  hour,  becaufe  they 
contain  a  greater  quantity  of  gum. 

3.  The  cocons  royal.  As  it  is  natural  to  fuppofe  you 
keep  the  flower  of  your  cocons  for  leed  ;  they  are  fuller 
of  gum  than  the  others,  for  which  reaibn  you  muft  let 
them  boil  an  hour;  after  which  you  muft  not  threfti  them 
as  the  former,  becaufe  they  contain  no  worm,  neither  is 
it  neceflary  to  ftay  till  they  are  quite  dry  before  you  fpin 
them;  on  the  contrary,  they  open  more  eafily  when  damp. 
The  produce  of  thefe  three  forts  of  cocons,  when  worked,^ 
makes  what  we  cMJ/ei/ret. 

After  you  have  boiled  the  cocons  and  threftied  them 
■well,  to  Ifiake  out  the  worm  they  contain,  you  may  card 
them  inftead  of  opening  them  as  above,  you  will  then 
make  a  much  more  beautiful  fleuret,  and  of  a  brighter 
colour,  but  it  will  at  the  fame  time  come  confiderably 
dearer,  becaufe  ot  the  wafte  in  carding.  A  good  fpinfter 
performs  a  very  reafonable  days  work  if  flie  can  fpin  an 
ounce  of  fleuret. 

To  fum  up  the  whole,  and  give  you  a  notion  of  the  va- 
lue of  thefe  three  forts  of  cocons,  you  may  calculate  thus. 

If  the  good  cocons  are  worth  one  hundred,  the  perfo- 
rated are  worth  thirty-three  one  third,  the  foufflons  twen- 
ty-five, the  royal  cocons  two  hundred  and  fifty;  but  if 
your  royal  cocons  are  not  chofen  ones  for  feed,  they  are 
■worth  but  two  hundred. 

The  beft  fleuret  is  that  which  proceeds  from  the  royal 
cocons,  afterwards  that  of  the  perforated  cocons  unchofen, 
laft  of  all  that  of  the  foufflons. 

CHAPr 


Of    the    SILK-WORM.  j6r 

Chap.  IV.     Of  the  Filature^  or  Winding  from  the  Worm. 

Although  the  frefh  cocons,  that  is  to  fay,  thofe  that 
have  not  been  baked  in  the  oven,  yield  a  brighter  filk  than 
thoie  that  have,  and  at  the  fame  time  yield  better  weight, 
by  realon  of  part  of  their  gum  which  they  have  not  loft 
by  the  tire,  yet  moft  people  prefer  thofe  that  are  baked,  in 
order  to  have  a  filk  more  even  in  its  colour;  unlefs  you 
could  have  a  confiderable  quantity  of  frefla  cocons,  and 
time  to  wind  them  fo;  for  otherwife  it  is  undeniable,  that 
the  trelli  would  be  much  more  advantageous,  as  well  for 
the  reafon  above  mentioned  as  becaufe  they  are  eafier  to 
wind,  not  having  been  dried  by  the  fire. 

Before  you  begin  to  wind,  you  mufl;  prepare  your  co- 
cons as  follows. 

1.  In  ftripping  them  of  that  wafte  filk  that  furrounds 
them,  and  which  ferved  to  fallen  them  to  the  twigs.  This 
burr  is  proper  to  fluff  quilts,  or  other  fuch  ufes;  you  may 
likewife  fpin  it  to  make  Ifockings,  but  they  will  be  coarie 
and  ordinary. 

2.  You  muft  fort  your  cocons,  feparating  them  into 
different  clafles  in  order  to  v\  ind  them  apart.  Thefe  claf- 
fes  are, 

The  good  white  cocons. 

The  good  cocons  of  all  the  other  colours. 

The  dupions. 

The  cocalons,  among  which  are  included  the 

weak  cocons. 
Tne  good  choquette  ;  and,  laflly. 
The  bad  choquette. 
In  forting  the  cocons,  you  will  always  find  fome  per- 
forated   cocons    amongft  them,    whofe  worm  is   already 
born;  thole  you  mufl  let  apart  for  fleuret.     As  I  have  de- 
fcribcd  above,  you  will  like>vife  find  fome  foufHons,  but 
very  few ;  for  which  reafon  you  may  put  them  among 
the  bad  choquette,  and  they  run  up  into  wafte. 

The 


362  Of    the    SILK- worm. 

The  good  cocons,  as  well  white  as  yellow,  are  tlie 
eafieft  to  wind  ;  thole  which  require  the  greateft  care  and 
pains  are  the  cocalons;  you  muft  wind  them  in  cooler  wa- 
ter than  the  others,  and  if  you  take  care  to  give  them  to 
a  good  windfter,  you  will  have  as  good  filk  from  them  as 
the  reft.  You  muft  likewife  have  careful  windfters  for  the 
dupions  and  choquettes.  Thefe  two  articles  require  hotter 
water  than  the  common  cocons. 

The  good  cocons  are  to  be  wound  in  the  following  man- 
ner. Firft  choofe  an  open  convenient  place  for  your  fila- 
ture, the  longer  the  better,  if  you  intend  to  have  many 
furnaces  and  coppers.  This  building  fhould  be  high  and 
open  on  one  fide  and  walled  on  the  other,  as  well  to  fcreen 
you  from  the  cold  winds  and  receive  the  fun,  as  to  give  a 
free  paffage  to  the  fteam  of  your  bafons  or  coppers. 

Thefe  coppers  or  bafons  are  to  be  difpofed  (when  the 
building  will  admit  of  it)  in  a  row  on  each  fide  of  the  fi- 
lature, as  being  the  moft  convenient  method  of  placing 
them,  for  by  that  means  in  walking  up  and  down  you  fee 
what  every  one  is  about.  And  thele  bafons  fliould  be  two 
and  two  together,  with  a  chimney  between  every  couple. 

Having  prepared  your  reels,  (which  are  turned  by  hands 
and  require  a  quick  eye)  and  your  fire  being  a  light  one 
under  every  bafon,  your  windfter  muft  ftay  till  the  water 
is  as  hot  as  it  can  be  without  boiling.  When  every  thing 
is  now  ready,  you  throw  into  your  bafons  two  or  three 
handsful  of  cocons,  which  you  gently  brufti  over  with  a 
wiflc  about  fix  inches  long,  cut  ftumpy  like  a  broom  worn 
out :  by  thefe  means  the  threads  of  the  cocons  ftick  to  the 
wifk.  You  muft  diiengage  thele  threads  from  the  wift?:, 
and  purge  them  by  drawiuic  thefe  ends  with  your  fingers 
till  they  come  off^  entirely  clean.  This  operation  is  call- 
ed la  Battiie. 

When  the  threads  are  quite  clear,  you  muft  pafs  four 
of  them  i^if  you  will  wind  fine  filk)  through  each  of  the 
boles  in  a  thin  iron  bar  that  is  placed  horizontally  at  the 

edge 


Of    the    SILK-WORM.  ^6^ 

cJge  of  your  bafon  ;  afterwards  you  twift  the  two  ends 
(which  confift  of  four  cocons  each)  twenty  or  twenty-five 
tunes,  that  the  tour  ends  in  each  thread  may  the  better  join 
together  in  crolhng  one  another,  and  that  your  filk  may  be 
plump,  which  otherwife  would  be  flat. 

Your  windfter  muft  always  have  a  bowl  of  cold  water 
by  her,  to  dip  her  fingers  in,  and  to  fprinkle  very  often 
the  laid  bar,  that  the  heat  may  not  burn  the  thread. 

Your  threads,  when  thus  twifted,  go  upon  two  iron 
hooks  called  rampins,  which  are  placed  higher,  and  from 
thence  they  go  upon  the  reel.  Now  at  one  end  of  the 
axis  of  the  reel  is  a  cog-wheel,  which  catching  in  the  teeth 
of  the  poft-rampin,  moves  it  from  the  right  to  the  left, 
and  confequently  the  thread  that  is  upon  it ;  fo  that  your 
filk  is  wound  on  the  reel  crofs-ways,  and  your  threads 
form  two  hanks  of  about  four  fingers  broad. 

As  often  as  the  cocons  you  wind  are  done,  or  break  or 
diminifli  only,  you  mufl  join  frefh  ones  to  keep  up  the 
number  requifite,  or  the  proportion  ;  1  fay  the  proportion, 
becaufe  as  the  cocons  wind  off,  the  thread  being  finer, 
you  muft  join  two  cocons  half  wound  to  replace  a  new 
one  :  Thus  you  may  wind  three  new  ones  and  two  half 
wound,  and  your  filk  is  from  four  to  five  cocons. 

When  you  would  join  a  frefh  thread,  you  muft  lay  one 
end  on  your  finger,  v\  hich  you  throw  lightly  on  the  other 
threads  that  are  winding,  and  it  joins  them  immediately, 
and  continues  to  go  up  with  the  reft.  You  muft  not  wind 
ofl^  your  cocons  too  bare  or  to  the  laft,  becaufe  when  they 
are  near  at  an  end,  the  bairre,  as  we  call  it,  that  is  the 
hufk,  joins  in  with  the  other  threads  and  makes  the  filk 
foul  and  gouty. 

When  you  have  finiftied  your  firft  parcel,  you  muft 
clean  your  bafons,  taking  out  all  the  ftriped  worms,  as  well 
as  the  cocons,  on  which  there  is  a  little  filk,  which  you 
firlt  npen  and  take  out  the  worm  and  then  throw  them  in- 
to a  bafliet  by  you,  into  which  you  likewife  caft  the  loofe 
filk  that  comes  off  in  making  the  battije.  You 


364  Of    the    SILK-WORM. 

You  then  proceed,  as  before,  with  other  two  or  three 
handsful  of  cocons  ;  you  make  a  new  battue  ;  you  purge 
them,  and  continue  to  wind  the  fame  number  of  cocons 
or  their  equivalent,  and  fo  to  the  end. 

As  I  faid  above,  your  windfter  murt  always  have  a  bowl 
of  cold  water  by  her,  to  fprinkle  the  bar,  to  cool  her  fin- 
gers every  time  fhe  dips  them  in  the  hot  water,  and  to 
pour  into  her  bafon  when  neceffary,  that  is,  when  her  wa- 
ter begins  to  boil.  You  muft  be  very  careful  to  twift  your 
threads  a  fufficient  number  of  times,  about  twenty-five, 
otherwife  your  filk  remains  flat,  inrtead  of  being  round 
and  full;  befides  when  the  filk  is  not  well  crofiTed  it  never 
can  be  clean,  becaule  a  gout  or  nub  that  comes  from  a 
cocon  will  pafs  through  a  fmall  number  of  thefe  twirts, 
though  a  greater  will  ft:op  it.  Your  thread  then  breaks 
and  you  pafs  what  foulnels  there  may  be  in  the  middle  of 
your  reel,  between  the  two  hanks,  which  ferves  for  a  head 
band  to  tie  them. 

You  muft  mind  your  water  be  juft  in  a  proper  degree 
of  heat.  When  it  is  too  hot  the  thread  is  dead  and  has 
no  body  ;  when  it  is  too  cold,  the  ends  which  form  the 
thread  do  not  join  well,  and  form  a  harlh  ill-qualified  filk. 
You  mufl  change  the  water  in  your  bafon  four  times  a 
day,  for  your  dupions  and  choquette,  and  twice  only  for 
good  cocons  when  you  wind  fine  filk,  but  if  you  wind 
coarfe  filk  it  is  neceflary  to  change  it  three  or  four  times. 
For  if  you  was  not  to  change  the  water  the  filk  w^ould 
not  be  fo  bright  and  gloily,  becaufe  the  worm  contained 
in  the  cocons  foul  it  very  confiderably.  You  mufi:  endea- 
vour as  much  as  poflible  to  wind  with  clear  water,  for  if 
there  are  too  many  worms  in  it,  your  filk  is  covered  with 
a  kind  of  duft,  which  attrad;s  the  moth  and  deftroys 
your  filk. 

You  may  wind  your  filk  of  what  fize  you  pleafe,  from 
one  coGOn  to  a  thouland;  but  it  is  difficult  to  wind  more 
than  thirty  in  a  thread.     The  nicety,  and  that  in  which 

confirts 


Of    the    silk-worm.  36^ 

confifts  the  greateft  difficulty,  is  to  wind  even,  becaufe 
as  the  cocon  winds  ofF,  the  end  is  finer,  and  you  muft 
then  join  other  cocons  to  keep  up  the  fame  fize.  This 
difiicuky  of  keeping;  the  filk  always  even  is  fo  great,  that 
(excepting  a  thread  of  two  cocons,  which  we  call  fuch)  we 
do  not  fay  a  filk  of  three,  of  four,  or  of  fix  cocons,  but  a 
filk  of  three  to  four,  of  four  to  five,  of  fix  to  feven  cocons. 
If  you  proceed  to  a  coarfer  filk  you  cannot  calculate  fo 
nicely  as  to  one  cocon  more  or  lefs.  We  fay  for  example, 
from  twelve  to  fifteen,  from  fifteen  to  twenty,  and  fo  on. 

It  is  eafy  to  conceive,  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  wind  a 
coarfe  filk  even,  than  a  fine  one,  becaufe  it  is  harder  to 
keep  a  great  number  of  cocons  always  to  the  fame  fize, 
than  a  fmall  one. 

The  dupions  which  you  defign  for  rondelette,  or  ordi- 
nary fewing  filk,  are  to  be  wound  from  fifteen  to  twenty. 
The  reft  you  may  wind  as  coarfe  as  poffible,  i.  e.  from 
forty  to  fifty :  they  ferve  to  cover  and  fill  up  in  coarfe 
fluffs,  and  may  likewife  be  ufed  forfome  fort  of  fewing  filk. 

The  good  choquette  is  to  be  wound  according  to  the 
ufes  to  which  you  intend  to  apply  it ;  however  not  finer 
than  from  feven  to  eight.  The  bad  choquette  you  may 
wind  from  fifteen  to  twenty  cocons. 

In  winding  the  good  cocons,  you  will  always  meet  with 
fome  defedlive,  which  will  not  wind  off,  or  are  full  of 
gouts  and  nubs.  Thefe  you  muft  take  out  of  your  bafon 
and  keep  by  themfelves.  They  are  called  bajftnats.  They 
are  to  be  wound  apart  as  coarle  as  you  can.  They  make  a 
foul,  dirty  filk.  To  have  a  good  filk,  you  muft  wind  ia 
fine  weather.  If  the  wind  be  hi^h  it  fhakes  your  filk, 
and  prevents  its  lying  fmooth  on  the  reel,  forms  ftrings 
of  threads,  which  make  it  very  difficult  to  wind  on  bob- 
bins. If  the  weather  is  rainy  the  filk  is  damp,  and  has 
not  that  luftre  it  ought  to  have,  or  which  it  has  when  it 
dries,  as  it  goes  upon  the  reel.  You  muft  mind  not  to 
hank  it  when  damp,  but  let  it  dry  on  the  reclj  otherwife  it 
would  be  furzy. 

A  a  a  I  have 


2,66      ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS 

I  have  now  only  to  fpeak  of  the  wafte  that  comes  from 
the  battue,  and  the  hulks  of  the  cocons,  that  have  llili 
fome  filk  upon  them,  which  are  thrown  into  bafkets  in 
winding,  and  are  what  we  call  morefques.  Thefe  you  firft 
dry  in  the  fun,  then  threfh,  and  afterwards  card  and  fpin 
them  to  make  fleuret.  One  hundred  and  fifty  ounces  of 
good  cocons  yield  about  eleven  ounces  of  filk  from  five  to 
fix  cocons ;  if  you  wind  coarfer,  fomething  more.  You 
may  wind  about  eleven  or  twelve  ounces  of  filk  from  five 
to  fix  cocons  in  fourteen  hours. 

The  filk  which  is  made  of  baffinats  and  bad  choquette 
ferves  to  make  ftockings  and  coarfe  heavy  fluffs,  fuch  as 
fattinades  and  damafks  for  hangings,  &c.  &c. 


N°  XLII. 

The  Art  of  making  Ajiatamical  Preparations  by  Corrojion. 
By  John  Morgan,  M.  Z).  ProfeJJbr  of  the  Theory  and 
Pra^ice  of  Phyfic  in  the  Univerfity  of  Pennfyl'uaniay 
Member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Phyftcians  at  Edinburghy 
and  F.  R.  S.  at  London^  6'^- 

AS  no  branch  of  fcience  more  certainly  leads  to  an  in— 
timate  acquaintance  with  the  fundlions  of  the  ani- 
mal body,  (which  is  the  foundation  of  all  rational  know- 
ledge of  the  caufes  and  cure  of  difeafes)  than  that  of  the 
ftruiture  of  the  vafcular  fyftem,  the  origin,  divifions,  dif- 
ferent ramifications  and  numerous  inofculations  of  the 
veffels  into,  and  their  communication  with  each  other,  I 
have  always  thought  this  field  of  ufeful  information  de- 
ferved  to  be  cultivated  with  great  induftry  and  attention. 
In  effe£t  it  brings  us  immediately,  and  in  the  moft  com- 
pendious way,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  nature,  and 
of  the  motions  of  the  fluids  which  circulate  through  them, 
of  their  dillribution  throughout  the  diiferent  parts  of  the 

body, 


By    C  O  R  R  O  S  I  O  N.  367 

body,  and  of  the  a£tion  and  ufes  of  the  veflcls  containing, 
as  well  as  of  the  humours  contained  in  them.  In  parti- 
cular, it  behoves  every  pradtitioner  of  phyfic  to  ftudy  the 
vaicular  texture  and  compofition  of  the  vifcera,  for  upon 
their  healthful  adlion  the  continuance  of  life,  free  from 
difeafe,  principally  depends;  and  the  more  their  fuhdions 
are  injured,  the  more  dangerous  difeafes  are  thereby  ge- 
nerated. From  a  relaxation  of  them  arife  atonia  and  w^eak- 
nefs,  and  from  obftrudtion  of  them  infarctions,  inflamma- 
tions, tumors  and  fchirri  are  produced.  To  an  acquaint- 
ance with  their  ftru£ture  and  anaftomofes,  and  the  fluids 
they  carry,  we  muft  be  chiefly  indebted  for  our  knowledge 
of  the  dodtrines  of  refolution  and  fuppuration,  and  for  the 
indications  that  point  out  to  the  phyfician  by  what  means 
to  accomplilb  thefe  defirable  events,  according  to  circum- 
ftances. 

The  little  progrefs  which  pradtical  anatomy  has  hitherto 
made  in  America,  and  the  great  confequence  it  may  be  of 
to  the  riling  fliudents  of  phyfic  and  furgery,  to  employ 
more  of  their  attention  on  this  ufeful  fubjedl,  are  my  mo- 
tives for  laying  before  you  this  eflay,  in  hopes  through 
this  channel  to  ftir  them  up  to  profecute  it  with  more  zeal 
and  ardor.  This  becomes  the  more  neceflary,  becaufe, 
owing  to  the  late  revolution,  the  fubjeds  of  North-America 
having  eftablifhed  themfelves  into  independent  ftates,  have 
at  prefent  leis  commerce  and  lefs  intercourfe  with  the  learn- 
ed and  poliflied  nations  of  Europe.  At  leafl;  fewer  ftudents 
from  America  have  recourfe  to  them  for  improvement  in 
the  knowledge  of  their  profefTion  than  formerly,  in  as  much 
as  medical  fchools  and  colleges  have  been  founded  in  feve- 
ral  of  thefe  different  ftates,  fince  the  author  of  this  eflay 
firft  recommended  and  aflifted  in  carrying  into  execution 
the  plan  of  tranfplanting  phyfic,  as  a  fcience,  from  acrofs 
the  ocean,  by  inftituting  medical  fchools  on  this  weftern 
fide  of  the  Atlantic*. 

A  a  a  2  Upon 

•  See  his  difcourfe  on  the  inflitution  of  medical  fchools  in  America,  delivered  at  a  pub- 
lic conuiicucement  in  the  college  of  Philadelphia,  May  1765. 


368      ANATOMICAL    PREPARATIONS 

Upon  our  own  exertions  mufl:  we  therefore  chiefly  de- 
pend for  building  up  the  medical  fabric,  erefling  ufe- 
ful  temples  of  the  healing  arts,  and  diffufing  the  lights 
we  can  kindle  through  this  new  world.  I  know  no  one 
ftep  that  can  be  more  ufeful  to  accomplifli  this  undertak- 
ing, than  to  teach  the  art  of  inveftigating  the  ftrudlure  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  animal  body,  by  injed:ions  and 
corrofions,  and  other  preparations  of  wax. 

Such  is  the  prefent  ftate  of  anatomy  in  this  country 
that  there  are  at  prefent  but  very  few,  I  believe  I  may  fay 
no  fuch  preparations  worth  mentioning  to  be  met  with 
here,  that  have  been  made  in  America.  Do£tor  Chovet, 
now  refident  in  this  city  has  indeed  a  good  collection  of 
wax  preparations,  of  different  parts  of  the  human  body, 
which  he  made  in  his  younger  days  and  brought  hither 
from  Europe.  But  nothing  of  this  kind  has  hitherto 
been  pradifed,  or  it  has  been  fo  taught  as  never  to  have 
been  of  lading  ufe  to  any  that  I  know  of. 

Being  well  acquainted  with  the  general  defire  that  fills 
the  breafts  of  my  countrymen,  to  acquire  and  improve 
every  kind  of  fcience  that  is  ufeful,  which  is  properly  laid 
before  them,  I  truft  this  attempt  will  ftir  up  many  to 
learn  and  pra£life  thofe  leffons  which,  for  their  particular 
benefit,  I  now  unfold  to  them ;  nor  do  I  doubt  in  a  little  time 
but  we  fliall  fee  fuch  an  emulation  kindled  for  improving 
on  thefe  hints,  that  all  kinds  of  ufeful  preparations  will  befo 
common  after  a  while,  as  not  only  to  give  rife  to  anato- 
mical cabinets  and  repofitaries  for  fpecimens  of  the  ani- 
mal, vegetable  and  foffil  kingdoms,  as  will  tend  to  throw 
great  light  upon  philofophy  in  general,  but  contribute  to  lay 
a  folid  and  ufeful  foundation  of  natural  hiflory  in  America. 

The  firft  rudiments  of  this  art  that  1  acquired  was 
from  the  two  Hunters,  known  through  all  Europe  for 
their  fuperior  flvill  in  anatomy,  and  adling  as  pradical  dif- 
feftor  to  the  celebrated  dodlors  Colignon  and  Smith,  pro- 
felFors  of  anatomy  in  the  univerfities  of  Cambridge  and  Ox- 
ford, 


By    C  O  R  R  O  S  I  O  N.  2>^->iy 

ford,  which  I  further  improved  by  praftice  at  Paris  with 
Monf.  Sue,  to  whom  I  am  wholly  indebted  for  my  know- 
ledge of  anatomical  preparations  in  wax. 

The  kind  of  preparations  of  thofe  parts  of  the  animal 
body  which  admit  of  it  that  I  now  propofe  to  explain, 
namely  by  injection  and  corrofion,  exceeds  in  beauty, 
nicety  and  ufefulnefs,  that  which  is  commonly  called  dif- 
fe£lion. 

In  fa£t,  in  this  latter,  we  can  trace  nature  but  very  im- 
perfeftly,  becaufe  by  difledlion,  the  larger  vefl'els  only  are 
preferved  from  the  knife,  and  for  the  moft  part  all  the 
fmaller  are  unavoidably  cut  away. 

On  the  contrary,  in  anatomical  preparations  by  corrofi- 
on, even  the  very  fmall  veffels  may  be  kept  entire,  and 
we  can  fee,  at  a  caft  of  the  eye,  the  courfe  and  diftributi- 
on  of  all  the  vafcular  fyftem  even  to  the  fize  of  an  hair, 
called  capillary  veffels,  and  thofe  too  difengaged  from  the 
furrounding  parts,  which  otherwife  wholly  conceal,  or 
make  them  difficult  to  be  perceived.  It  is  impofllble  that 
with  only  the  affiftance  of  a  differing  knife,  any  perlon 
fhould  be  able  to  lay  open  to  view  all  thofe  fmaller  veffels, 
however  flcilful  and  experienced  the  hand  may  be  that 
directs  it.  The  exadl  and  perfect  imitation  of  nature 
which  this  fort  of  preparations  prefents,  the  eafe  with 
which  they  are  made,  and  their  extraordinary  beauty  and 
neatnefs,  render  a  knowledge  of  this  art  fo  much  the 
more  defirable. 

The  art  of  injecting  the  very  fine  veffels  of  the  body 
with  common  injedlion,  was  well  known  to  the  celebrated 
Ruyfch,  the  moft  famous  anatomiit,  in  that  way,  of  any 
living  in  Europe  in  his  day;  and  therefore  it  has  been 
fometimes  called  the  Ruyfchian  art,  but  it  fell  fhort  of  the 
one  I  now  undertake  to  explain,  becaufe  in  his  prepara- 
tions the  minute  veffels  only  become  vifible,  fo  far  as 
the  fubftance  through  which  they  proceed  was  tranfpa- 
rent,  but  our  art  extends  to  the  removal  of  every  fur- 
rounding 


370      ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS 

rounding  fubflance,  and  leaves  them  entirely  naked  and 
perfedlly  expofed  to  the  eye.  I  once  (hewed  a  preparati- 
on of  the  veflels  of  a  kidney  I  had  thus  executed  at  Paris, 
to  a  meeting  of  the  French  academy  of  furgery  in  the  year 
1764,  who  allowed  it  to  be  curious  and  quite  new  to  them. 
I  think  none  of  the  members  prefent  at  that  meeting,  ex- 
cept Monf.  Morand,  fecretary  of  that  academy,  who  had 
been  in  England  and  was  acquainted  with  dod:or  Hunter, 
alledged  their  having  ever  feen  a  fimilar  preparation. 
At  their  requeft  I  prefented  a  memoir  on  the  fubjedl,  and 
fince  that  time  Monf.  Siie  has  beftowed  one  entire  fedion 
in  treating  exprefsly  upon  it,  with  a  polite  acknowledge- 
ment of  his  having  acquired  his  knowledge  from  me,  on- 
ly with  the  particularity  of  naming  me  as  one  of  the  facul- 
ty of  Edinburgh,  without  taking  any  notice  of  my  being 
a  Pennfylvanian  by  birth,  or  native  of  America,  which 
have  led  fome  into  miftakes  concerning  the  author  of  that 
piece.  The  reafon  may  be  that  Americans  before  the 
revolution,  being  but  little  confidered  in  any  other  light 
than  as  colonirts,  their  nation  was  feldom  taken  notice  of, 
and  I  was  introduced  to  him  firft  as  a  graduate  of  the 
univerfity  of  Edinburgh,  and  known  to  him  afterwards  as 
a  inember  of  the  royal  college  of  phyficians  of  that  place. 
Thefe  preparations  are,  fince  that  period,  become  com- 
mon in  France,  and  the  art  is  now  well  known,  and  cul- 
tivated fuccefsfuUy  by  Monf.  Slie  and  others;  but  it  was 
unknown  there  till  I  communicated  it,  firft  at  Paris,  and 
afterward  in  the  fouth  of  France  ;  where  I  had  the  honour 
of  explaining  it  to  the  illuftrious  Monf.  Imbert,  chancellor 
of  the  univerfity  at  Montpelier,  and  to  Monf.  Bourgelas, 
principal  of  the  Ecole  veterenaire,  or  academy  eftablifhed 
at  Lyons  for  the  improvement  of  the  fcience  of  horfeman- 
fhip,  juftly  celebrated  for  his  very  elegant  preparations  of 
the  anatomy  of  horfes,  &c.  But  what  gave  me  equal 
pleafure  and  furprize,  was  the  admiration  excited  on  my 

prefenting' 


By    C  O  R  R  O  S  I  O  N.  371 

prefenting  only  a  part  of  the  vafcular  preparation  of  a 
kidney  by  corrofion,  (the  reft  beuig  broke  down  in  a  jour- 
ney by  land  of  above  a  thouland  miles)  which  was  ex- 
preffed  by  the  celebrated  Morgagni,  illuftrious  profefTor 
of  anatomy  in  the  univerfity  of  Padua.  He  had  kept  up 
a  literary  correfpondence  with  Ruyfch  when  alive,  had 
been  favoured  with  fpecimens  of  this  great  man's  prepa- 
rations, and  declared  that  in  comparifon  to  the  preparation 
I  gave  him,  they  were  "  rudis  indigeftaquc  moles?'  From 
this  fmall  fpecimen,  he  faid,  "  ex  ungue  leonem,"  he  could 
readily  comprehend  that  the  uiefalnefs  of  this  kind  of 
knowledge  amongft  the  learned  in  anatomy,  niuft  become 
great  and  exteniive. 

I  mention  thefe  anecdotes  merely  to  fliow  how  recent, 
or  at  leall  how  confined  the  knowledge  of  this  ufeful  art 
then  was,  being  limited,  as  far  as  I  know,  to  Great-Bri- 
tain only.     I  fuppoie  it  to  be  owing  to  this  circumftance, 
viz.  that  real  practical  anatomifts  who  have  excelled  in 
their  preparations,  have  too  generally  kept  fecret  the  me- 
thods and  arts  they  employed  in  making  thofe  preparati- 
ons.    For  this  reafon,  much  I  think  is  due  to  the  me- 
mory of  the  great  Profellor  Monro,  of  Edinburgh,   who 
has  publifhed  a  paper  upon  the  art  of  making  injedlons. 
So  far  as  I  can  learn,  this  art  cannot  be  traced  farther 
back  than  to  the  learned  Dr.  Nichols  of  London,  who  for- 
merly  gave  ledlures  in  anatomy   both  there  and  at   Ox- 
ford, and  from  whom  Dr.  Hunter  acknowledged  to  his 
pupils  that  he  received  his  firft  Information.     He  then  de- 
ferves  to  be  looked  upon  as  the  author  and  Inventor  of 
this  art.     When  Dr.  Nichols  dechned  the  bufinefs.  Dr. 
Hunter  and  his  brother  Mr.  Hunter,  took  up  the  profefTiou 
of  anatomy.     Without  doubt,  thofe  unrivalled  brothers  in 
anatomical  Iklll,  made  confiderable  improvements  in  the 
art  of  Injeding  and  diffeding  animal  bodies  ;  and  it  is  like- 
ly improved  the  compofition  of  injedions  for  corrofion. 


372      ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS 

My  well  meant  intention  of  marking  the  rife  and  pro- 
grefs  of  this  art,  and  of  exciting  an  emulation  in  my 
countrymen  to  profecute  and  improve  it,  will,  I  hope,  not 
only  excule  but  jullify  both  the  matter  and  length  of  my 
introdudtion. 

Thefe  preliminaries  being  thus  fettled,  I  now  proceed 
to  the  main  obje£t  of  this  communication.  Without  ex- 
patiating upon  the  advantages  that  will  attend  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  this  art,  for  the  fake  of  perfpicuity  I  (hall 
here  reftridl  myfelf  to  laying  the  following  obfervations 
before  you,  reduced  to  general  heads,  in  as  few  words, 
and  in  as  concife  a  manner  as  I  am  able.  They  may  be 
ufeful  to  thofe  who  wi(h  to  put  them  in  practice,  and  will 
perhaps  giveoccafion  to  perfons  who  are  curious  in  making 
experiments  in  anatomy,  to  li.L-ht  up  fome  new  difcovery. 

The  art  of  making  anatomical  preparations  by  corrofi- 
on,  depends  on  the  following  principles. 

1.  We  ought  for  the  matter  of  injection  to  make  ufeof 
a  fubftance  that  is  poflefled  of  a  fuitable  degree  of  confift- 
ence,  and-  fine  enough  to  penetrate  into  the  minuteft  vef- 
fels,  and  which  at  the  fame  time  has  fuch  a  firmnefs  of 
texture  as  not  to  alter  with  the  changes  of  the  temperature 
of  the  atmofphere,  that  is,  it  ought  not  to  be  fubje£t  to 
melt  with  the  fummer's  heat,  nor  to  break  down  from  its 
brittlenefs  on  being  gently  handled  in  the  winter. 

2.  The  colours  to  be  employed  for  fake  of  diflinguifh- 
ing  the  different  orders  of  veffels,  whether  arterial,  venal, 
tracheal  or  others,  ought  to  be  of  fuch  a  nature  as  not  to 
be  changed  upon  applicaiion  of  the  menRruum. 

3.  We  ought  to  make  ul'e  of  a  mcnflruum  that  is  capa- 
ble of  confuming  the  mufcular,  parenchymatous,  cellular 
or  fatty  parts  that  furround  the  veffels,  without  affedling 
the  fubflance  that  we  ufe  for  injection  to  fill  the  veffels.   . 

4.  Care  and  addrefs  are  neceffary  in  the  perfon  who 
makes  the  injection. 

5.  Lartly,  great  attention  is  requifite  in  removing  the 
loofe  and  corroded  parts,  and  in  feparating  them  from  the 

injcded 


By    CORROSION.  373 

inje£led  veflels  without  breaking  them  down  by  the  force 
applied  in  cleanfing  them. 

The  following  directions  will  ferve  to  guide  the  opera- 
tor in  thefe  different  manoeuvres. 

The  common  injedtions  are  compofed  of  wax  and  fuet, 
or  of  wax  and  oil ;  the  fuet  or  oil  is  made  ufe  of  to  foften 
the  wax,  and  to  give  it  the  neceflary  confiftence.  We 
cannot  employ  fuch  a  compofition  in  our  corroded  prepa- 
rations, being  oppofed  to  the  third  principle  laid  down  ; 
becaufe  the  menftruum  we  ufe  for  deftroying  the  parts  that 
furround  the  veflels,  will  alfo  attack  and  confume  the  fat 
and  animal  fubftances  which  enter  into  the  compofition  of 
the  injed:ion.  But  we  may  employ  the  following  compo- 
fitions,  the  goodnefs  whereof  has  been  proved  by  repeated 
trials,  viz. 

First  Receip  t. 

Take  of  white  or  the  befl:  yellow  wax  and  purified  rofin 
each  equal  parts,  e.  g.  ten  or  twelve  ounces ;  melt  them  to- 
gether and  add  a  fufficient  quantity  of  fpirit  of  turpentine, 
to  give  a  due  confiftence,  that  is  from  fix  to  eight  ounces. 

It  isadvifeableto  melt  the  rofin  firft,  and  ftrain  it  through 
a  piece  of  fine  linen  ;  becaufe,  in  the  ftate  it  is  bought  out 
of  the  fliops,  it  is  often  mixed  with  foreign  fubftances. 

I  am  of  opinion  this  injedlion  will  turn  out  to  be  finer 
than  the  following,  that  is,  it  will  penetrate  into  ftill 
fmaller  veflels,  but  it  is  thought  to  have  the  inconvenience 
of  being  more  brittle ;  fo  that  after  corrofion,  the  moft 
flender  of  the  veflels  are  more  liable  to  break  down  in 
handling  the  preparation. 

The  following  is  the  receipt  which  the  celebrated  MelTrs 
Hunter  of  London,  have  commonly  made  ufe  of.  It  is 
lefs  brittle  and  produces  a  firmer  cohefion  of  parts,  with 
nearly  the  fame  confiftence  as  the  former.  Befides,  it  en- 
ters very  fufficiently  into  the  capillary  vefl'els. 
Second  Receipt. 

Take  of  pure  rofin  eight  ounces,  of  wax  four  ounces, 
*of  Venice  turpentine  a  fufiicient  quantity,  that  is,  about 

B  b  b  eleven 


374      ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS 

eleven  or  twelve  ounces,  to  procure  a  proper  confiftence 
to  the  injedtion. 

The  method  of  afcertaining  the  due  confiftence  and  the 
neceflary  firmnefs  of  the  injection,  is  by  taking  up  any 
quantity  of  it,  whilft  melted,  with  a  fmall  wooden  fpatula, 
and  then  letting  it  fall  drop  by  drop  on  the  furface  of  cold 
water.  This  immediately  fpreads  and  forms  into  a 
thin  plate.  By  rolling  it  between  your  thumb  and  fin- 
ger firft  moiftened,  or  in  the  palm  of  one  hand  with  the 
fingers  of  the  other,  both  previoufly  made  wet  to  prevent 
flicking,  turn  it  into  the  fhape  of  a  cylinder  or  fmall  blood- 
vefTel,  then  throw  it  into  a  bafon  of  cold  water,  and  let  it 
remain  till  it  is  quite  cold.  If  it  is  then  of  fuch  a  confift- 
ence as  not  to  yield  to  a  very  flight  force,  when  prelTed  be- 
tween your  thumb  and  finger,  affd  yet  fo  foft  as  to  be  ca- 
pable of  bending  readily  without  breaking,  it  has  the  due 
medium  of  firmnefs  and  flexibility  which  is  defired.  If 
it  appears  to  be  too  foft,  a  further  quantity  of  wax  and 
I'ofin  are  to  be  added  in  the  above  mentioned  proportion, 
till  it  acquires  the  wiftied  for  confiftence.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  too  hard,  a  proportionably  larger  quantity  of 
the  Venice  turpentine  is  to  be  added.  The  fame  precau- 
tion is  to  be  obferved,  if  we  make  ufe  of  rofin,  wax  and 
fpirit  of  turpentine,  as  directed  in  the  firft  receipt. 

Operators  feldom  are  at  the  trouble  of  weighing  the 
ingredients ;  they  generally  judge  of  the  refpedtive  weights 
and  proportions  of  each  by  the  eye.  This  method  of  de- 
termining them  will  anfwer  very  well  for  perfons  who  have 
acquired  experience  j  for  the  difl^erent  feafon  of  the  year 
when  the  injedtlon  is  made,  and  the  diff'erent  confiftence 
or  purity  of  the  wax  and  rofin,  with  other  little  circum- 
ftances  which  fometimes  happen,  occafion  fome  little  va- 
riation. In  general  there  is  not  fo  great  danger  of  fpoil- 
ing  the  preparation,  by  making  the  compofition  a  little 
fofter  than  is  required,  rather  than  harder,  becaufe  it 
grows  fome  what  harder  by  time,  and  alfo  by  fteeping 

the 


By    C  O  R  R  O  S  I  O  N.  375 

the  parts  injeded  in  water,  for  the  fake  of  wafliing  off  the 
menllruum  that  we  have  made  ufe  of  for  performing  the 
neceflary  corrofion. 

Thefe  injedlions  are  well  fuited  to  make  corroded  pre- 
parations of  the  vifcera,  as  of  the  heart,  lungs,  liver  and 
kidneys.  Yet  I  doubt  not  but  perfons  of  ingenuity,  who 
fhall  be  at  the  pains  to  render  themfelves  converfant  in 
the  art  of  inje£lion,  by  giving  attention  to  every  circum- 
fiance,  will  acquire  further  fkill  and  may  find  other  fub- 
ftances,  equally  fit  for  injeilion  without  being  fo  liable  to 
become  brittle,  which  thofe  compofitions  I  have  given 
above  are,  in  fome  degree,  even  when  made  with  the  ut- 
moft  care  and  exacftnefs. 

To  know  whether  any  fiibftance  of  which  a  perfon  wifli- 
es  to  make  a  trial  for  injection,  will  withftand  the  adtion 
of  the  menftruum  he  means  to  employ,  it  is  fiafficient  to 
put  a  piece  ot  the  compofition  to  be  ufed  as  an  injedtion 
into  a  fmall  quantity  of  the  menftruum,  and  let  it  remain 
in  it  for  a  week  or  fortnight;  by  that  means  he  can  judge 
of  its  goodnefs,  before  be  is  at  the  trouble  of  making,  or  of 
Ijpoiling  an  injection,  as  the  cafe  may  happen. 

Of  the  Colours. 

The  colours  wc  commonly  ufe  to  diftinguifh  the  differ- 
ent orders  of  veffels  are,  ift.  Vermilion  for  colouring  the 
injedtion  for  the  arteries.  2d.  Blue  verditure,  or  what  is  call- 
ed PrufTian  blue,  for  the  injection  to  be  thrown  into  the 
veins.  3d.  For  colouring  the  injections  to  be  thrown  into  the 
ureters  and  pelvis  of  the  kidneys,  and  the  tracheal  veffels 
of  the  lungs,  what  are  called  in  EngliJh  king's  yellow 
and  flake  white  are  moftly  ufed.  A  variety  of  other  co- 
lours may  be  employed,  but  thefe  are  the  principal  and 
the  beft. 

We  fhould  obferve  to  melt  the  wax  thoroughly  over  a 
flow  fire,  and  the  colouring  powders  fhould  be  added  by 
degrees,  ftirring  them  well  in  at  the  fame  time,  before  the 

B  b  b  2  other 


376       ANATOMICAL    PREPARATIONS 

other  ingredients  are  added.  This  method  prevents  any 
efFervefcence,  which  often  happens  when  there  is  too  great 
a  fire,  or  when  all  the  ingredients  are  mingled  together 
before  the  colouring  powders  are  added,  efpecially  the  two 
laft.     The  quantity  is  judged  of  by  trial. 

Of  the  proper  Menstruum.. 

I  now  pafs  to  the  third  head,  viz.  to  confider  what  fub- 
ftances  will  anfwer,  for  confuming  all  the  parts  furround- 
ing  the  injedion,  and  leaving  the  matter  in  the  veflels 
themfelves  untouched. 

The  beft  I  have  yet  tried  is  the  concentrated  fuming 
acid  of  marine  fait,  which  comes  over  in  the  diflillation 
employed  in  the  procefs  for  making  glaubers  fait;  it 
fhould  not  be  diluted  with  water,  nor  be  dulcified,  other- 
wife  it  becomes  too  weak  to  anfwer  the  purpofe,  or  at  leaft 
the  time  required  for  compleating  the  corrofion  is  thereby 
protradled  beyond  what  is  needful. 

The  concentrated  acids  of  vitriol  and  of  nitre,  are  no  lefs 
powerful  to  deftroy  all  the  animal  fubftance,  furrounding 
the  inje£led  veflTels,  but  the  objedion  to  which,  from  feve- 
ral  trials,  they  appear  to  be  liable,  is  that  they  are  fup- 
pofed  to  crifp  the  veflels  ;  at  leaft  the  fpirit  of  fea-falt  has 
been  moft  ufed,  and  concluded  to  be  tke  leaft  exception-^ 
able  menftruum  for  this  operation. 

Such  were  the  fentiments  I  communicated,  in  my  me- 
moir to  the  royal  academy  of  furgery  at  Paris  in  the  year 
1764,  fince  which,  Monf.  SUe,  royal  profeflTor  of  anatomy 
in  the  fchools  of  furgery,  and  in  the  royal  academy  of 
painting  and  fculpture  at  Paris,  having  honoured  my  com- 
munication to  the  abovementioned  academy,  with  a  fec- 
tion  in  his  treatife  entitled  Anthropotomie,  chap.  2.  fe£t. 
25.  from  page  70  to  page  84 ;  after  acknowledging  that 
he  received  the  art  of  making  thofe  preparations  from  me, 
thus  adds.  "  Since  that  time  my  nephew  and  I,  having 
worked  at  them  a  great  deal,  and  with  abundant  fuc- 

cefs, 


Of    corrosion. 


m 


cefs,  we  have  difcovered,  that  we  may  change  the  men- 
ftruum,  without  injurhig  the  preparation  at  all,  and  em- 
ploy aqua  fortis,  or  the  nitrous  acid  in  place  of  the  fu- 
ming fpirit  of  fait;  and  that  aqua  fortis  is  even  a  more 
perfedl  menftrum,  than  the  fpirit  of  lalt,  in  as  much  as 
the  colour  of  the  injection  is  thereby  lefs  changed,  and 
the  fmall  velfels  better  preferved.  Bei'ides  the  difference 
of  expence  is  confiderablc,  as  the  fpirit  of  fait  is  worth 
eighteen  livres  a  pint,  whilft  the  aqua  fortis  cofts  at  moft 
but  two  livres,  and  the  effect  is  the  fame  for  quantity,  I 
have  alfo  employed  the  fpirit  of  nitre  for  the  fame  pur- 
pofe,  with  great  fuccefs*." 

In  refpeB  to  the  fourth  Principle-,  yiatnely,  the  Addrefs  of 
the  Operator.,  and  ivherein  it  conftfls. 

He  ought  to  guard  againft  cutting  away  or  removing 
the  cellular  and  other  furrounding  parts,  before  he  has 
made  the  injedion.  In  fatt,  thefe  give  firmnefs  to  the 
veflels,  and  prevent  their  ftretching  unnaturally,  or  affum- 
ing  forms  contrary  to  nature,  from  the  impulfe  of  the  in- 
jedlion  when  drove  into  them  by  the  hand  of  the  anato- 
mift.  Thefe  fubflances  enable  them  to  refift  the  too  great 
extenfion  and  yielding  to  the  force  applied. 

The  injedling  pipes  ought  to  be  proportioned  to  the  fize 
of  the  veflels  through  which  the  inje£lion  is  to  be  made. 

It  is  proper  to  foak  thofe  parts  in  warm  water,  which 
we  are  about  to  injeft,  for  a  (horter  or  longer  fpace  of  time, 
as  well  to  wafh  them  clean,  as  to  carry  off  the  blood  and 
other  fluids,  and  the  better  to  difpofe  thofe  parts  to  receive: 
the  inje£lion,  with  which  they  are  to  be  filled. 

The- 

*  Monf.  Morgan,  Doflcur  en  medicine  de  la  faculte  d'Edinbourg,  en  »  donnc  une  defcrip- 
tion  exacle  a  1' Academic  royalc  de  la  chirurgie,  tt  c'eft  de  lui  que  je  tiens  I'art  de  preparer  ces 
parties;  mais  depuis  apres  y  avoir  beaucoup  travaiUe,  mon  ncveu  ct  moi,  et  y  avoir  eu  beau- 
coup  de  fucces,  nous  avons  decouvert  qu'on  pouvoit  changer  le  menftrue,  fans  preiudicier 
on  rien  a  la  preparation,  ct  employer,  au  lieu  de  fel  fumant,  I'eau  forte,  qui  eft  meme  un 
menftrue  plus  parfait,  que  I'efprit  de  fel,  puifque  la  couleur  de  I'injetTion  eft  moins  chanece 
et  que  Ics  petits  vaiftcaux  font  mieux  confcrvcs.  D'ailleurs  la  difference  eft  encor  bien  grandc 
pour  la  dcpenfe,  pulfque  I'efprit  de  fel  vaut  l8  liv  la  pinte,  au  lieu  que  I'eau  forte  ne  coute 
tout  au  plus  que  i  liv,  et  que  la  quantite  eft  la  meme  pour  I'effet.  J'ai  employe  aufli  avcc 
beaucoup  de  fucccs  I'efprit  de  nitre.     Authropotomic,  pag.  83.  84. 


}.- 


37$      ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS 

The  fubftance  employed  for  the  inje£tion  ought  to  be 
entirely  melted  over  a  moderate  fire,  and  be  heated  to  the 
exa£t  degree  that  will  not  permit  the  cooling  of  it  too  faft, 
upon  coming  into  contact  with  the  parts  into  which  it  is 
impelled,  nor  ought  it  to  be  fo  great,  on  the  other  hand, 
as  to  burn  or  crifp  the  veflels,  or  prove  troublelbme  to 
the  operator  in  handling  the  fyringe  or  pipes,  whilft  he  is 
making  the  injeftion. 

The  inje£tion  fhould  be  thrown  into  the  part  to  be  pre- 
pared, at  one  uniform  impulfe,  made  flowly  and  evenly, 
with  a  fteady  hand,  and  with  folittleforce  as  not  to  endanger 
a  rupture  of  the  veflels  in  the  loft  parts.  When  the  in- 
jection is  finifhed,  the  pipes  fliould  be  corked  or  otherwifc 
clofed,  and  the  parts  injeded  fhould  be  fuffered  to  cool  by 
degrees.  If  they  are  plunged  at  once  into  cold  water, 
before  the  fubftance  of  them  has  acquired  a  certain  de- 
gree of  hardnefs  and  firmnefs,  a  contra£lion  in  the  elaftic 
coats  of  the  veflels  may  be  produced,  fufficient  to  occa- 
fion  a  rupture,  efpecially  in  the  capillaries,  which  will 
always  be  followed  by  an  extravafation  of  the  injected 
fubftance. 

Having  expofed  the  injected  parts  to  the  air  during  an 
hour  or  two,  it  is  proper  to  commit  them  to  cold  water  all 
night,  to  cool  and  to  harden  them  thoroughly.  After 
taking  them  out  of  the  containing  veflel  and  abibrbing  the 
water  from  their  furface  with  a  fpunge  gently  applied, 
or  fufi^ering  it  to  run  off  by  draining,  they  fhould  be  put 
into  a  fufficient  quantity  of  the  menftruum  to  cover  the 
preparation  entirely. 

The  next  confideration  is  how  to  make  ufe  of  the  men- 
ftruum for  corroding  the  parts  to  be  diffolved  and  remov- 
ed from  the  veflels.  For  this  purpofe  the  operator  fhould 
be  furniihed  with  a  china  bowl  or  a  ftone  veflTel,  on  which 
the  menftruum  can  make  no  impreffion  ;  or  what  will  an- 
fwer  ftill  better,  a  glafs  vefl"el  with  a  mouth  fufficiently 
large  to  put  in  and  take  out  the  injected  parts,  without  any 

difficulty. 


By    CORROSION.  379 

difEculty.  It  would  be  well  to  furniih  it  with  a  proper 
cover  to  reftrain  the  acid  fumes  from  efcaping.  I  have 
always  ufed  a  cover  of  cork  lined  with  wax,  into  which, 
whilfi:  it  is  in  a  melted  ftate,  the  inferior  fide  of  the  cover 
may  be  dipped ;  and  this  cover  muft  be  cut  fo  as  to  fit  ex- 
a£lly  the  mouth  of  the  veflel.  The  great  advantage  of  a 
glafs  veflel  over  the  others  is  its  tranfparency,  whereby 
we  are  able  to  fee  how  the  corrofion  goes  on,  and  to  judge 
when  it  is  finifhed.  This  takes  up  from  fix  or  feven  days 
to  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  part  to  be  prepared,  and  to  the  quantity  and  concen- 
tricity of  the  menfliruum  employed,  in  which  it  ought  to 
be  entirely  covered.  When  the  acid  is  very  dilute,  it  proves 
rather  antifeptic  and  a  preferver  of  animal  fubftances,  than 
a  corrofive  menfl:ruum» 

Of  difengaging  the  Corroded  Subjiance. 

Fifthly.  The  laft  part  of  the  operation  confifts  in  difen- 
gaging the  loofened  and  corroded  fubftance  from  that  of 
the  injeftion.  In  this  piece  of  bufinefs  we  ought  to  take 
the  greateft  care,  if  we  wifh  to  avoid  breaking  down  the 
beautiful  fmall  veflTels  of  the  part.  With  this  view  the  acid 
fpirit  employed  as  a  menftruum  fhould  be  decanted  from 
the  inje<£tion  with  great  caution,  whenever  the  corrofion 
of  the  furrounding  fubftance  is  complete,  fo  that  it  no 
longer  adheres  to  the  veflels.  In  place  of  the  corroding 
menftruum,  Ibak  the  preparation  in  fimple  water  for  three 
or  four  days.  The  loofe  fubftance  may  be  removed  from 
the  veflels,  by  pouring  frefli  water  over  the  preparation 
flowly,  and  in  fmall  quantity  at  a  time;  or  otherwife  we 
may  put  the  preparation  in  a  velTel  pierced  with  holes, 
like  a  cullender,  and  place  this  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to 
receive  a  gentle  current  or  ftream  of  water.  If  we  ftiould 
place  the  veflTel  near  the  nofel  of  a  pump,  and  under  the 
droppings  or  fmalleft  ftream  which  we  can  procure  to  fall 
from  it,  the  preparation  may  be  thus  cleanfed  from  the 
loofe  corroded  matter  with  which  it  is  encompailed. 

But 


380      ANATOMICAL   PREPARATIONS 

But  the  method  I  have  difcovered,  and  always  pra£lifed 
as  the  fafeft  and  beft,  is  to  make  ufe  of  a  fmall  fyringe, 
the  pifton  whereof  works  eafily,  with  which,  whilft  the 
preparation  is  covered  three  or  four  inches  over  with  wa- 
ter, I  lyringe  gently,  fo  as  to  wafh  and  clean  it  entirely 
from  the  corroded  fubftance  which  is  but  loofely  attached 
to  it.  In  this  manner,  ufmg  proper  care,  it  may  be  per- 
formed perfectly  without  breaking  down  any,  even  the 
fineft  parts,  of  the  tender  veffels. 

But  if  more  force  than  needful  is  employed,  even  the 
droppings  of  a  pump  from  a  too  great  height,  when  the 
preparation  is  taken  out  of  the  water,  will  fometimes  break 
down  the  extremities  of  the  fmall  veffels,  and  mar  the 
beauty  of  it. 

After  all  thefe  directions  have  been  well  executed,  the 
preparation  is  to  be  fufpended  for  fome  time  in  a  fafe  place, 
till  it  is  dry  ;  then  it  is  to  be  fixed  on  a  wooden  pedelfal, 
having  a  focket  like  a  candleftick,  in  which  it  may  be  faft- 
cned  with  a  little  glue  or  melted  wax.  Then  let  it  be  co- 
vered with  a  tranlparent  glais  in  form  of  a  globe  or  bell, 
with  the  mouth  downward,  to  guard  it  from  accidents. 
This  finifhes  the  work. 

Thefe  preparations  give  us  a  moft  exadl  knowledge  of 
all  the  ramifications  and  anaftomofes  of  the  veffels,  and 
often  of  the  jun<Stion  of  the  arterial  and  venal  fyftem,  when 
the  injedfion  is  fine  enough,  and  fo  fuccefsfuUy  thrown 
from  the  arterial  trunk  as  to  penetrate  into  the  veins  and 
fill  that  fyftem  of  veffels  in  the  organ  prepared,  complete- 
ly, at  one  and  the  fame  time.  Thus  I  have  filled  both  the 
emulgent  arterial  and  venal  fyflem  of  veffels,  in  a  kidney, 
at  one  coup  de  main,  through  a  fingle  pipe  fixed  in  the 
great  trunk  of  the  emulgent  artery,  the  correfponding 
trunk  of  the  vein  being  fhut  up  with  a  ligature.  But  it  is 
more  common  for  the  injecftion  made  by  the  artery  to  ftop 
at  the  extremities  of  the  evanefcent  branches,  and  to  fill 
the  venal  fyftem  by  a  fecond  injedion,  drove  through  the 
great  trunk  of  the  emulgent  vein. 

Upon 


By    CORROSION.  -,8i 


o^ 


Upon  the  whole,  thefe  teach  us,  in  the  bed  manner 
poffible,  the  true  and  intimate  liruiture  of  the  vifcera  in 
general,  and  of  every  particular  part ;  from  whence  we 
may  aflert,  without  fear  of  any  juft  cenfure,  that  prepara- 
tions thus  executed  are  exceedingly  ufeful,  and  enrich  the 
cabinet  with  choice  and  beautiful  ipecimens  of  anatomy. 

I  have  only  to  add  that,  in  order  to  enable  the  artift  to 
fucceed  and  pufh  his  difcoveries,  it  behoves  him  to  learn 
the  art  of  preparing  the  fubjedl  by  dilfedion.  This  is 
a  new  branch,  though  intimately  connected  with  the 
foregoing  :  There  are  few  books  that  teach  it ;  but  one 
very  excellent  treatil'e  on  the  fubjed;  is  publiflied  in  French 
by  Monf.  Siie,  already  quoted  by  the  titleof  anthropotomy, 
or  the  art  of  dilfeiting,  injecting,  embalming  and  preferv- 
ing  the  parts  of  the  human  body ;  which,  as  I  think  it 
will  greatly  contribute  to  improve  anatomy,  I  have  fome 
thoughts,  at  my  leifure,  to  tranflate  into  Englifh,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  ftudents  of  anatomy,  phyfic  and  furgery  in 
America. 

I  here  fitbjoin  the  manner  of  7nakmg  Wax  Preparations  by 

Monf.  Siie. 

""^"TITHEN  we  have  a  mind  to  make  any  prepara- 
W  tion  of  wax,  we  ought  to  begin  by  moulding 
the  part  we  wifli  to  imitate  with  frefh  plaifter  of  Paris 
made  very  fine,  taking  care  to  oil  it  previous  to  the  appli- 
cation of  the  plaifter. 

"  When  the  plairter  laid  on  the  furface  of  the  part  is 
cold,  remove  all  the  pieces  that  compofe  the  mould  one 
after  another,   taking  care   not   to    break  any   of  them. 

C  c  c  After 

MANIERE  DE  FAIRE  LES  PREPARATIONS  EN  CIRE. 

LO  R  S  Q_U '  O  N  veut  fairc  quelque  preparation  en  cire,  il  faut  commcnccr  par  moiiler  li 
partie  que  Ton  veut  immiter  avcc  du  platre  frais  ct  bicn  f:n,  ayant  I'attention  de  bicii 
huillcr  la  partie  avant  que  d'appliquer  le  platre.  Lorfque  le  platre  I'era  refroidl  de  dcffus  la 
partie,  alors  on  otera  toutcs  Ics  pieces  qui  compufcnt  le  moulc,  I'une  apres  I'autre,  prenant  garde 

qu'aucuno 


382       ANATOMICAL    PREPARATIONS 

After  leaving  them  to  dry  for  fome  time,  they  may  he 
fafely  ufed.  For  this  purpofe,  melt  a  fufficient  quantity  of 
virgin  wax  in  a  flvillet,  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  colour  it  ac- 
cording to  the  colour  of  the  part  which  is  to  he  imitated, 
with  carmine,  or  other  paint;  or  if  the  piece  to  he  imitated 
has  feveral  parts  of  different  colours,  we  muft  not  then  co- 
lour the  whole  piece  at  once,  hut  are  to  place  the  colour 
required  upon  each  part,  after  the  piece  has  been  melted. 

"  Whilft  the  v/ax  melts,  prepare  the  mould,  which  we 
muft  be  careful  to  oil  well  with  a  little  brufh  to  prevent 
fticking  ;  then  join  all  the  pieces  of  the  mould  together, 
which  muft  be  tied  faft  with  fmall  cords  or  twine;  and 
that  the  air  may  not  pafs  through  the  cracks  or  joinings 
of  the  pieces  of  the  mould,  place  fome  clay  on  the  outfide, 
by  way  of  luting. 

"  The  mould  being  thus  prepared,  and  having  taken 
care  to  leave  an  opening,  we  pour  the  wax  into  the  mould 
through  it,  and  then  carefully  turn  the  mould  every  way, 
in  order  that  the  wax  may  fpread  equally  through  all  the 
interior  parts,  of  it  until  it  is  cold.  If  it  be  found  that  the 
piece  is  not  thick  enough,  we  are  to  pour  on  more  melted 
wax,  and  turn  it  as  before  '^  then  let  the  piece  cool  in  the 
mould :  afterwards,  with  proper  precaution,  we  are  to  take 
the  pieces  of  the  mould  apart,  one  after  the  other.  Thef 
preparation  being  taken  out  of  the  mould  entire,  we  muft 
take  off  the  fuperfluous  portions  of  wax  which  penetrated 

the 

qi/aucune  ne  cafie.  On  le  lalfic  fecher  pendant  que Ique  terns.  EnfuitC' on.  peut  s'en  fcrvir, 
Povir  cet  effet  on  lait  fondre  de  la  cire  vicrgc  dans  un  poidon  a  petit  feu,  et  on  le  colore,  fui- 
vant  la  couleur  ds  lapartie  qu'on  veut  rcprel't^nter,  avec  du  carmin,  ou  quelquc  autre  couleurj. 
ou  bien,  fi  la  partic  a  pluficurs  parties  de  couleur  differente,  alors  on  ne  colore  point  la  piece. 
Et  on  met  la  couleur  liir  chaque  partie  apres  que  la  piece  a  etefondiie.  Pendant  que  la  cir» 
fonde  on  prepare  1^  nioule,  qu'on  a  le  foiu  de  bien  huillt-r  avec  un  pinceau.  Enfuite  un  re- 
fenible  routes  les  pieces  du  moule,  qu'on  retlcnt  units  avec  dcs  cordes  ou  de  la  ficelle,  et  pour 
^ue  la  cire  ne  paite  par  les  fentes  ou  les  jointures  dcs  pieces  du  nioule,  on  y  met  lur  les  join- 
tures exterieuremcnt,  de  la  terre  gidifle.  Le  moule  prepare  ainG,  et  ayant  eu  rattemion  de 
y  laifler  une  ouverture,  on  verfe  la  cire  dans  le  moule,  et  Von  a  le  foin  de  tourner  le  moulc 
tn  tout  fens,  pnur  que  la  cire  fe  repande  egalcment  par  tout  I'intcritur  du  moule,  jufques  a  ce. 
qu'elle  foit  rafroidie.  Si  vous  jugez  que  la  piece  ne  foit  pas  afltz  epaiffe,  vous  remettez  de 
nouveau  de  la  cire,  et  vous  faites  comme  ci  deffus.  Apres  quo!  on  lailTe  ri'froider  la  piece, 
dans  le  moule,  et  enfuite  on  tire  avec  beaucoiip  de  precaution  les  pieces  du  moule,  I'une  apres 
Tautrc.     La  piece  etaut  uitiereirj^nt  depouillee,-on  la  rtpare.     Cell  a  dijre  qu'on  otc  de  def- 


By   CORROSION.  383 

tTie  joinings  of  the  pieces  of  the  mould,  which  being  en- 
tirely repaired,  we  then  colour  the  different  parts  which 
compofe  the  piece  with  colours  fuitable  to  each  part,  that 
the  arteries  may  be  coloured  with  vermillion  ;  the  veins 
with  Pruffian  blue;  the  mufcles  with  carmine;  and  fo  of 
the  other  parts ;  ivhich  finifljes  the  preparation. 

"  Note.,  When  we  wifh  to  make  the  wax  lefs  brittle,  we 
muft  add  fome  fpermaceti  to  it;  and  fometimes  a  little  of 
the  fineft  Venice  turpentine  that  can  be  procured." 

fas  les  portions  excedentes  de  cire  qui  fe  font  gUfsees  entre  les  jointures  des  pieces  du  moule. 
I,a  piece  etant  entierement  reparee,  on  colore  les  difFerentes  parties  qui  compoient  la  piece 
avec  des  couleurs  convenables  a  chaque  partie,  en  forte  que  les  arteres  feront  colorees  avec  du 
vermilion  ;  et  les  veines  avec  du  bleu  de  Pruffe  ;  les  mufcles  avec  du  carmin  ;  ainfi  des  autrcs. 
Nota  que  quand  on  veut  rendre  la  cire  moins  caflante  on  y  adjoute  le  blanc  de  baleinc, 
quelque  fois  aulTi  un  peu  de  terebentine  de  Venife,  tout  ce  qu'il  y  a  de  plus  fin. 


N°  XLIII. 

Of  a  living  Snake  in  a  living  Horfe's  Eye,  and  of  other 
unnjual  Productions  of  Animals.  By  John  Morgan, 
M.  D.  F.  R.  S.  London,  Profejfor  of  the  Theory  and 
Pradice  of  Phyfic,  Philadelphia. 

Read  June  "T "¥  T  H E  T  H  E R  there  is  fuch  a  thing  in  nature 
5. 17^2-  YY  as  equivocal  generation,  by  which  is  to  be 
imderftood  the  produ£lion  of  any  new  animal  indepen- 
dant  of  a  parent  ftock  of  the  fame  kind,  has  been  a  fub- 
jedl  of  controverfy  amongft  philofophers;  fome  afferting 
the  reality  of  this  dodrine,  whilft  others,  as  the  celebrat- 
ed Harvey  and  his  followers  as  ftrenuoufly  rejed  it.  The 
latter,  which  Is  now  deemed  the  orthodox  fide  of  the 
queftion,  affirm  that  the  young  of  all  are  produced  from 
an  egg,  furnifhed  by  the  female,  and  foecundated  by  a  male 
animal.  From  the  light  thrown  upon  this  fubjed:,  by  the 
deep    refearches    of  Hippocrates,    Galen    and    Ariftotle, 

C  c  c  2  among 


3S4  SNAKE  IN  A  HOPvSE's  EYE. 

among  the  antients ;  and  amongfi  the  moderns  by  Mal- 
phigi,  De  Graaf,  and  above  all  others  by  the  beforementi- 
oned  renowned  Harvey,  phyfician  to  king  Charles  the 
firfl:  of  England,  (the  difcoverer  of  the  true  circulation  of 
the  blood)  this  induction  feems  to  be  eftablifhed  upon  an 
indudlion  of  fadts  and  experiments,  carrying  with  them 
the  force  of  conviction,  fo  far  as  that  induftion  reaches. 

The  only  room  which  fome  fuppofe  there  may  be  for 
doubt  of  the  univerfality  of  the  propofition  is,  that  a  vari- 
ety of  animals  have  been  found,  at  different  times,  toexift 
in  the  bodies  of  other  animals,  and  in  extraordinary  pla- 
ces, which  neither  the  dilcoverers  of  thofe  animals,  nor 
others  have  been  able  to  trace,  with  clearnefs  and  certain- 
ty, to  what  mankind,  in  general,  can  deem  a  probable  or 
fatisfadtory  origin.  Whether  it  be  owing  to  an  impati- 
ence to  arrive  at  fome  conclufion,  which  can  ill  brook  the 
difficulties  of  the  inquiry,  or  to  the  rarenefs  of  the  cafes 
falling  under  the  notice  of  perfons  capable  of  making  a 
thorough  inveftigation,  and  the  tedious  progrefs  of  expe- 
rimental knowledge;  or  whether  it  is  that  we  are  apt  to 
fuppofe  the  fubjeft  does  not  admit  of  mathematical  certain- 
ty from  the  light  of  philofophy,  I  know  not;  but  fome 
men  have  had  recourfe  to  the  dodlrine  of  equivocal  gene- 
ration, to  account  for  thofe  produdiions,  as  Ariftotle  and 
his  followers  had,  in  other  cafes,  to  certain  occult  quali- 
ties; a  term  by  which  they  have  endeavoured  to  conceal 
their  ignorance  of  what  they  could  not  explain,  but  were 
unwilling  to  confefs.  Nor  are  there  wanting,  in  the  pre- 
fent  day,  many  perfons,  who  will  fooner  deny  the  teftimo- 
ny  of  their  fenfes,  than  allow  the  exiftence  of  an  animal 
produdlion,  which  they  know  not  how  to  account  for. 

This  I  fuppofe  to  proceed  from  a  falfe  pride,  or  an  appre- 
henfion  of  being  deemed  credulous  in  a  philofophic  and  en- 
lightened age;  and  becaufe,  in  times  of  ignorance,  the 
paffions  of  illiterate  men  were  wrought  upon  by  fictions  to 
believe  in  prodigies,  whereby  they  were  led  blindfold,  into 

opinions 


SNAKE  IN  A  HORSE'S  EYE.  585: 

©pinions  of  religion  and  philofophy,  which  had  no  folid 
foundation,  the  race  of  fceptics  I  refer  to  deem  it  manly 
not  only  to  with-hold  their  aflent  from  truths  they  do 
not  underftand,  but  to  difown  and  difpute  the  reality  of 
them.  They  do  not  confider  that,  by  fuch  conduft,  they 
endeavour  to  divert  themfelves  and  others  of  their  rati- 
onal faculties,  and  of  that  natural  curiofity  implanted  in 
man  by  his  Creator,  for  the  wifefl  purpofe,  as  a  guide 
for  inveftigating  fadls,  in  order  to  lead  him  to  knowledge, 
which  has  given  birth  to  difcoveries  of  the  greateft  im- 
portance to  mankind. 

In  anfwer  to  the  cavils  of  minute  philofophers,  I  would 
briefly  remark  the  firft  ftep  to  new  difcoveries,  is  an  ex- 
a<fl  attention  to  the  phenomena  of  nature,  unbiafed  by 
preconceived  hypothefes,  and  that  it  is  as  much  a  mark  of 
a  defedlive  underftanding  to  admit  too  little  for  truth,  up- 
on evidence,  as  to  believe  too  much  from  credulity. 

I  have  been  led  into  the  above  train  of  obfervations  from 
a  fmgular  phainomenon  that  may  be  now  feen  in  this  city, 
and  which  is  worthy  the  infpedtion  of  the  curious.  It  is 
advertifed  in  the  public  newfpapers,  viz,  the  Pennfylvania 
Gazette,  May  23d,  as  worthy  of  the  attention  and  critical 
infpedlion  of  all  curious  perfons,  whether  philofophers  or 
phyficians,  and  particularly  the  latter,  as  it  may,  for  what 
they  know,  if  properly  examined  into,  throw  fome  ufeful 
light  upon  the  fundtions  and  difeafes  of  the  animal  body. 

What  I  refer  to  is  an  horfe  with  a  fnake  in  its  eye,  to 
be  feen  in  Arch-ftreet,  between  Sixth  and  Seventh  ftrcets, 
not  only  poflefled  of  mere  life,  but  endowed  with  a  very 
brifk  locomotive  faculty.  True  philofophers  will  not 
treat  the  aflertion  as  idle,  fictitious  or  romantic,  but  fee 
and  judge  for  themfelves. 

The  writer  of  this  piece  has  undertaken  the  prefent  tafk,. 
on  purpofe  to  excite  every  clafs  of  people  to  fatisfy  them- 
felves of  the  reality  of  the  fadt,  that  when  recorded  in  the 
very  place  where  all  have  it  in  their  power  to  determine  its 
exiftence,  oa  the  teftimony  of  their  own  eyefight,  they  may 

not. 


386  SNAKE  in  a  HORSE's  EYE. 

not  plead  ignorance  and  unbelief.  He  profeffes,  for  his 
own  part,  to  be  as  little  credulous  or  liable  to  impofitions, 
from  accounts  of  pretended  miraculous  appearances,  as  his 
neighbours,  however  learned.  Indeed  he  has  ever  ftrenu- 
oufly  oppofed,  and  thinks  he  ever  (hall,  what  he  deems 
empty  tales  of  vifionary  fpeculatifts,  bred  by  weak  fancies, 
or  railed  by  defigning  men,  to  amufe  or  deceive  the  vulgar ;  • 
but  he  admires  and  reveres  the  unfearchable  wifdora  of  the 
divine archited,  whoframed  this  fpacious  univerfe,  teeming 
/  with  myriads  of  animal  beings,  as  well  in  thofe  inftances 
where  his  defign  and  footfteps  are  vifible,  as  in  thofe  which 
lay  more  remote  from  human  comprehenfion.  Upon  the 
firft  relation  of  this  curious  hiftory  from  others,  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  ftruiture  of  the  eye,  and  therefore  more  likely 
to  pafs  a  wrong  judgment;  and,  till  he  had  an  opportu- 
nity to  examine  it  himfelf,  he  believed  the  appearance  to 
be  fome  unufual  difeafe,  or  a  filimentary  produdion  on 
the  cryftalline  humour,  from  a  ftroke  or  inflammation  of 
the  eye,  and  that  a  convulfion  in  the  nerves  of  its  coat 
might  produce  an  irritation  in  that  organ,  and  a  tremulous 
motion,  which  might  impofe  upon  thofe  who,  not  know- 
ing how  to  account  for  the  appearance,  fliould  content 
themfelves  with  calling  it  a  fnake  in  the  eye,  merely  from 
its  refemblance,  on  firrt  fight,  to  that  animal.  But  from 
the  clofefl:  ocular  examination,  with  unwearied  attention, 
repeated  more  than  once,  he  conceives  he  is  not  miftaken, 
in  aflerting  that  there  is  a  real  fnake  in  the  eye;  which, 
from  the  vivacity  and  brifknefs  of  its  motion,  exceeds  that 
of  any  worm,  and  equals  that  of  any  kind  of  ferpent  he 
has  ever  feen. 

To  fatisfy  the  public  in  general,  as  well  thofe  who  have 
now  an  opportunity  of  feeing  it,  as  fuch  who  may  happen 
never  to  fee  it,  I  think  it  will  not  be  amifs  to  defcribe  its 
appearance,  and  to  deliver  what  I  have  been  able  to  col- 
led of  its  hiftory. 

The 


SNAKE  IN  A  horse's  EYE.  387 

The  horfe  in  whofe  left  eye  this  extraordinary  liifus  mi- 
iune  is  vifihle,  is  of  a  forrel  colour,  nine  years  old;  it  be- 
longed to  Dodlor  Dayton  near  the  lines  at  Elizabeth-town, 
and,  I  am  told,  appeared  to  have  no  uncommon  appear- 
ance in  either  eye,  till  within  a  few  months  ago.  The  firll 
particular  circumflance  which  excited  the  owner's  attenti- 
on was,  that  having  lent  him  to  a  friend  to  take  a  ride  in 
a  chair,  although  it  was  not  known  to  be  vicious  or  un- 
ruly before,  it  could  not  now  be  kept  under  any  govern- 
ment, but  ran  away  with,  and  dallied  the  chair  to  pieces. 
The  right  eye  ftill  continues  in  a  found  ftate. 

Soon  after,  viz.  about  ten  weeks  ago,  Mr.  Richard 
Wells,  merchant  of  this  city,  a  gentleman  of  probity  and 
of  great  philofophic  knowledge,  being  at  Elizabeth-town 
in  company  with  Dodlor  Dayton,  this  gentleman  told 
him  he  would  fliew  him  a  curiofity  as  great  perhaps  as  he 
had  ever  feen,  namely,  a  living  fnake  in  a  living  horfe's 
eye.  Mr.  Wells  then  deOring  to  fee  it,  upon  looking  in- 
to the  eye,  difcovered  the  animal  very  plainly,  in  a  con- 
ftant  ferpentine  motion,  but  neceflarily  in  a  fomewhat  con- 
voluted form,  as  its  length  was  equal,  as  nearly  as  he  could' 
judge,  to  two  diameters  and  an  half  of  the  eye,  which  could 
not  meafure  lefs  than  between  three  and  four  inches.  The 
head  and  tail,  or  if  you  pleafe,  the  two  extremities  of  the 
animal  were  then  vifible,  and  the  horfe's  eye  ftill  retained' 
its  tranfparency  enough  to  admit  feeing  the  whole  of  the 
fnake  diftindly. 

The  horfe  was  foon  after  purchafed  by  a  free  negro,  on 
purpofe  to  bring  to  Philadelphia  for  fhow,  in  order  to 
gratify  the  curiofity  of  the  virtuofi  of  every  clafs,  by  giv- 
ing them  an  opportunity  of  feeing  and  contemplating  fo 
curious  a  phsenomenon,  and  of  communicating  the  refult 
of  their  inquiries  to  the  learned,  for  the  information  of  the 
public  at  large. 

At  prefent,  apparently  from  the  brifk  and  almoft  con- 
ftant  motion  of  ilic  animal,  which  is  fomewhat  increafed 

ifli 


388  SNAKE  in  a  HORSE's  EYE. 

in  length,  fince  the  Infpedlion  at  Elizabeth-town,  and  which 
is  as  thick  as  a  knitting  needle,  or  piece  of  common  twine, 
as  nearly  as  can  be  determined  through  the  Intervening 
medium,  the  aqueous  and  vitreous  humours  of  the  eye 
are  confounded  (the  fine  cellular  texture  of  the  latter  be- 
ing broke  down)  and  tinged  with  the  fofteft  part  of  the 
cryftalline,  fo  as  to  affume  fomewhat  of  a  white  milky  ap- 
pearance, bordering  on  the  colour  of  a  cataradl.  The  Iris 
appears  to  be  greatly  dilated,  or  rather  wholly  deftroyed. 
For  the  feptum,  or  partition  which  feparates  the  anterior 
from  thepofterior  chambers,  in  a  found  eye,  muft  be  broken 
down,  as  the  animal,  or,  to  fpeak  like  a  fceptic,  the  animal 
appearance  of  a  fnake  is  continually  receding  into  the 
fundus  and  back  part,  and  by  times  coming  forward  into 
the  anterior  part  of  the  eye,  with  a  convoluted  brifk  mo- 
tion. I  cannot  think  a  fnake  of  the  fame  fize  moving 
brifkly  in  a  tumbler-ful  of  fair  water,  or  of  water  dif- 
coloured  with  a  tea-fpoonful  of  milk,  would  be  more 
vifible ;  but  the  coats  of  the  eye  and  humours  have  now 
fomewhat  of  a  milky  appearance,  or  colour  of  an  incipi- 
ent cataraft. 

It  may  be  juftly  prefumed,  that  whatever  might  be  the 
ftate  of  viiion,  at  firfl  appearance  of  this  furprifing  ph^e- 
nomenon,  that  eye  muft  be  now  blind.  1  he  lids  are 
commonly  clofed,  probably  owing  to  pain  excited  in  the 
eye  by  fo  troublefome  a  gueft  ;  but  there  is  no  bloodfhot 
appearance  on  the  cornea,  though  the  furrounding  parts, 
namely,  the  palpebrse,  are  a  little  tumid.  To  get  a  view 
of  the  eye,  the  keeper  commonly  ftrikes  the  horfe  on  its  back 
with  an  open  hand,  at  which,  as  if  frightened,  it  opens  the 
lid  of  the  left,  as  well  as  widens  the  opening  of  the  right 
eye,  which  continues  difclofed  but  a  fliort  time ;  however 
this  gives  an  opportunity  for  infpeilion  for  five  or  fix  fe- 
conds  of  time  together,  and  the  blows  muft  be  repeated 
to  keep  the  eye  open,  when  a  perlon  wiihes  to  have  a 
longer  time  for  infpedion. 

The 


SNAKE  IN  A  HORSE'S  EYE.  389 

The  milky  appearance  has  for  fome  weeks  grown  gra- 
dually more  opaque;  from  which  circumftance  it  is  pro- 
bable the  difeafe  occafioned  by  the  prefence  of  an  extra- 
neous body,  or  unnatural  animal  irritating  the  organ, 
will  gradually  produce  too  great  oblcurity  to  afFord  that 
fatisfadion  in  viewing  it,  which  hitherto  it  has  done  and 
ftill  continues  to  afford. 

It  has  been  my  wifh,  and  I  have  expreffed  my  opinion 
to  feveral  gentlemen  that  it  would  be  worth  while,  to  make 
up  a  fum  of  money  and  purchafe  the  horie  for  fake  of  dil- 
feding  the  eye,  whillt  the  animal  is  yet  alive,  but  no  no- 
tice has  been  yet  taken  of  it :  Perhaps  the  owner  keeping 
it  for  (how  places  too  high  a  value  upon  it.  I  have  fur- 
ther defired,  if  that  purchafe  is  not  made,  to  have  an  op- 
portunity of  taking  out  the  eye  and  diffeding  it  immedi- 
ately after  death,  whenever  that  event  takes  place,  if  it 
happens  where  I  am. 

The  eye  has  been  infpeded  by  feveral  gentlemen  of  the 
faculty,  who  are  aflonifhed,  and  at  a  lofs  to  account  for  the 
appearance  on  common  principles  or  from  known  difeafes; 
a  queftion  then  naturally  arifes  in  the  minds  of  moft  who 
have  feen  or  heard  of  it,  viz.  If  it  be  a  real  fnake  or  other 
living  animal,  how  it  got  there,  or  whether  there  are  other 
inconteflible  hiftories  to  match  it,  in  the  annals  of  medi- 
cal hiftory,  of  animals  bred  in  man  or  other  animals,  as 
difficult  to  be  accounted  for  ? 

I  anfwer.  Fads  are  what  I  am  more  concerned  to.efla- 
blilh  than  fpeculative  opinions  ;  therefore  inftead  of  lead- 
uvr  to  theories  that  may  be  idle  and  groundlefs,  I  fliall  be 
fatisfied  to  refer  all  who  doubt  the  reality  of  its  being  a 
fnake  in  the  eye,  firfl  to  the  hiftory  of  the  Guinea  worm, 
of  which  I  have  had  more  than  one  cafe  falling  under 
my  own  care,  and  have  feen  others  in  the  Pennfylva- 
nia  hofpital,  extraded  from  the  leg,  feveral  yards  in 
length  ;  fecondly,  to  the  well  known  hiftory  of  a  jointed 
-worm  bred  in  the  liver  of  Mrs  Holt,  in  this  city,  about 

D  d  d  thirty 


390  SNx\KE  IN  A  HORSE'S  EYE. 

thirty  years  ago,  of  about  twenty  inches  long  and  near 
three  in  circumference,  recorded  in  the  medical  effays  of 
a  fociety  of  phyficians  in  London.  This  worm  I  have 
feen  ten  years  after  preferved  in  fpirit,  in  the  anatomical 
cabinet  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  William  Hunter  of  that  place; 
and  thirdly,  I  refer  to  the  hiftory  and  engraving  of  one 
exaflly  fimilar,  as  large  as  the  life,  inferted  in  the  feconci 
volume  of  Edinburgh  medical  eflliys,  plate  fourth  ;  and 
laftly,  to  autopfy,  by  examining  the  eye  of  the  horfe  in 
queftion,  which  will  afford  ocular  demonftration  of  the  fa£t. 

I  fhall  add  to  thefe  fome  obfervations  of  that  prince  of 
anatomifts  in  his  day,  the  famous  Ruyfch,  who,  as  Dr. 
Haller  attefts,  from  a  pradlice  of  diiTeclion  continued  for 
near  eighty  years,  with  a  diligence,  fl^ill  and  accuracy  in 
examining  into  morbid  bodies,  and  the  nicenefs  of  his 
diifeftions  and  of  his  anatomical  injedlions,  exceeded  all 
his  cotemporaries  ;  and  in  fine,  whofe  teftimony  in  thofe 
matters  was  looked  upon  by  Boerhaave  and  Haller,  and  by 
every  medical  writer  fmce,  to  be  as  inconteftible  authority 
as  that  of  any  other  perfon  whatfoever. 

In  his  firft  volume,  obfervation  the  i6th,  he  fays,  "  daily 
experience  proves  that  worms  may  be  generated  in  all  parts 
of  the  body.  I  ftrangled  a  dog  that  was  very  lively  three 
hours  after  being  fed,  with  a  view  to  examine  the  lacteal 
or  milk  veffels.  On  opening  the  belly  of  it  a  live  worm, 
at  leaft  two  fpans  in  length,  {kipped  out,  I  could  difco- 
ver  nothing  amifs  in  the  omentum,  nor  any  folution  of 
continuity  of  the  parts ;  and  both  the  mefentery  and  in- 
tertines  were  found." 

Again  he  fays,  obfervation  54,  "  I  have  had  room  to 
doubt  whether,  as  Harvey  and  his  followers  affirm,  all 
animals  are  produced  out  of  an  egg,  from  worms  being 
found  in  the  arteries  of  living  horfes;  as  alfo  from  worms 
feen  in  the  parenchyma,  or  the  glandular  fubftance  of  the 
liver,  as  it  is  now  called,  and  alfo  in  the  cyftic  dud  and 
biliary  pores  of  flieep,  and  very  often  ill  the  gall-bladder. 

1  remember 


SNAKE  IN  A  HORSE'S  EYE.  391 

I  remember  once  to  have  feen  them  in  the  human  kidneys, 
and  fuch  as  are  more  frequently  met  with  in  the  kidneys 
of  dogs.  That  worms  have  been  fometimes  found  in  the 
brain,  no  body  can  deny  who  will  be  at  the  trouble  of 
turning  over  the  writings  of  authors  of  high  repute.'* 

By  what  paflages  thole  animals  or  their  eggs  were  in- 
finuated  into  the  interior  parts  of  the  body,  is  not  ealy  to 
determine.  It  does  not  feem  probable  that  they  could 
reach  the  forementioned  places  through  the  pores  of  the 
fkin  or  the  organs  of  refpiration;  much  lefs  that  their  eirgs 
were  taken  in  at  the  mouth,  and  from  thence  proceeded 
to  their  refpeftive  places ;  nor  yet  is  it  likely  they  could 
remain  entire  in  the  ftomach,  where,  in  the  procefs  of  chy- 
lification,  there  is  a  remarkable  fermentation  and  breaking 
down  the  parts  of  the  food.  Nor  can  the  chyliferous  or 
ladleal  velTels  afford  a  paflage  to  the  eggs  in  their  rout ; 
and  laftly,  no  one  alledges  that  he  has  ever  feen  exad:ly 
fimilar  worms  out  of  the  body. 

Were  I  fo  difpofed,  or  did  the  defign  of  this  paper  re- 
quire it,  I  could  to  thofe  obfervations  add  many  extraordi- 
nary inftances,  of  ftrange,  rare,  and  furprizing  produdlions 
of  animals  in  the  human  body,  from  the  works  of  the 
celebrated  Bartholine,  phyfician  to  the  king  of  Denmark, 
and  from  other  grave  and  learned  authors  of  unexcepti- 
onable repute.  But  here  I  paufe,  to  reverence  the  hand 
that  framed  not  only  our  bodies,  but  thofe  of  the  meaneft 
reptiles,  with  an  exuberance  of  fkill,  which  proclaims 
that  they  are  not  the  effedl  of  chance;  and  acknowledging 
I  am  lolf  in  wonder,  I  leave  the  fuller  explanation  of  the 
uncommon  productions,  to  fome  happy  genius  that  may 
arife,  if  ever  it  fhould  pleafe  God  to  produce  fuch  an  one 
into  the  world,  who  by  tracing  out  the  footflepr.  of  the 
Creator,  fhall  be  able  to  throw  clearer  lights  than  we  yet 
.have,  upon  thefe  abftrufe  fubjeds. 

D  d  d  2  Some 


[    392     ] 


N°  XLIV. 

Some  Account  of  a  motley  coloured.,  or  pye  Negro  Girl  and' 
Mulatto  Boy.,  exhibited  before  the  Society  in  the  Month  of 
May,  1784,  yir  their  examination,  by  Dr.  John  Mor- 
gan, from  the  Hijlory  given  of  them  by  their  oivner 
Monf  Le  Vallois,  Dentifi  of  the  King  of  France  at  Gua~ 
daloupe  in  the  Wefl  Indies,  as  folloivs. 

ADELAIDE,  the  little  girl  now  before  the  fociety,  is 
aged  two  years  and  little  more  than  one  month,  is 
of  a  clear  black  colour,  verging  to  brown,  except  that  fhe 
has  a  white  fpot  bearing  fome  refemblance  to  an  aigrette; 
the  point  of  which  is  at  the  root  of  the  nofe,  and  it  rifes 
into  the  hair,  above  the  forehead,  of  which  it  occupies 
above  an  inch  in  width,  from  the  margin  to  the  fonte- 
nelle.  In  this  part  the  colour  of  the  hair  is  white,  and 
it  is  curly  like  the  hair  of  negroes  in  general,  and  thicker 
in  that  part  than  on  any  other  part  of  its  head.  In  the 
middle  of  its  forehead  and  on  the  aigrette,  is  a  large  black 
fpot;  on  the  external  fide  next  to  the  temples,  about  one 
half  of  each  eye-lid,  both  upper  and  under,  is  black,  and 
the  remaining  half  next  to  the  nofe  is  white; 

The  eyes  are  black  and  lively,  a  little  to  the  left  and 
towards  the  middle  of  the  chin  a  white  fpot  begins,  which 
is  long  in  proportion  to  its  breadth,  but  of  lefs  magnitude 
than  that  of  the  forehead :  It  ftretches  under  the  chin  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  throat.  The  neck,  the  upper  and 
under  part  of  the  cheft,  the  fhoulders,  the  back,  loins  and 
buttocks  to  the  jun£tion  with  the  thighs,  and  the  puderr- 
dum,  are  of  the  colour  of  her  face,  but  the  loins  and  the 
thicker  part  of  the  buttocks  are  of  a  deeper  black. 

The 


PYE  NEGRO  GIRL  and  MULATTO  BOY.    39.5 

The  arms  from  the  upper  and  middle  part  arc  white, 
and  interlperi'ed  with  black  I'pots.  There  are  fome  fmaL- 
ler  and  more  numerous  about  her  knees  than  elfewhere. 

Upon  the  large  black  fpots  there  are  alio  many  i'maller 
and  blacker  which  are  very  glaring.  Many  of  thefe  fpots 
divide  into  four,  five  and  fix  rays,  refembling  a  ftar,  which 
are  not  obferved  but  by  a  clofe  infpedtion,  and  then  they 
are  very  vifible.  In  feveral  parts  thofe  fpots,  being  of  dif- 
ferent fhades,  give  an  exadl  pidlure  of  lunar  eclipfes,  as 
they  are  commonly  reprefented  in  the  books  of  aftrono- 
my.  The  hands,  the  middle  part  of  the  fore  arras,  the 
inferior  and  middle  parts  of  the  legs  and  feet  are  black, 
which  have  a  pretty  ftriking  refemblance  to  gloves  and  to 
bufkins. 

The  white  that  prevails  over  the  breaft,  and  over  the 
belly,  arms  and  thighs,  has  a  lively  appearance.  The 
fkin  is  foft,  fmooth  and  fleek. 

Adelaide  has  fine  features;  we  meet  with  few  negroes  of 
fo  beautiful  a  form.  In  her  temper  fhe  is  cheerful,  gay 
and  fportful,  and  as  tall  as  children  of  her  age  generally 
are,  and  hath  evidently  a  very  delicate  temperament,  yet 
enjoys  pretty  good  health,  neither  hath  flie  eyes,  nor  ears, 
nor  any  particularity  in  her  features,  or  external  confor- 
mation, like  what  may  be  feen  at  the  firft  infpecSlion  in 
thofe  who  are  called  white  negroes,  whofe  fkin  is  altoge- 
ther of  a  dead  vi^hite  colour,  and  whofe  woolly  white  hair 
and  features  refemble  thofe  of  their  negro  parents. 

From  this  detail  we  may  remark  that  the  alteration  of 
the  natural  colour  of  Adelaide,  takes  place  over  the  fame 
parts  of  the  body,  for  the  moft  part,  as  over  the  body  of 
Maria  Sabina,  of  whom  Monl.  Buffon  gives  an  account; 
and  confidering  it  as  a  well  authenticated  fad,  from  all 
the  information  that  has  been  received  of  Adelaide,  that 
fhe  had  a  negro  father  and  negro  mother,  we  are  led  to 
believe,  that  the  Engllfh  account  under  the  portrait  of 
Maria  Sabina  is  exad,  and  not  aflerted  merely  for  thg. 

fak.. 


^94  SOME   ACCOUNT    of    a 

fake  of  covering  the  honor  of  the  mother,  and  of  the  fo- 
ciety  in  which  ihe  was  a  flave. 

The  pyed  mulatto  boy  is  named  Jean  Pierre.  He  is  a 
month  younger  than  Adelaide;  but  from  his  figure,  which 
is  roburt,  he  appears  to  be  fiK  months  older.  He  as  well 
as  Adelaide  both  belong  to  Monf.  le  Vallois.  He  was  born 
at  Grandterre,  Guadaloupe,  of  a  negro  wench  named  Ca- 
rolina and  of  a  white  man,  an  European,  whofe  name  I 
did  not  learn. 

A  certificate  which  Monf.  le  Vallois  has  with  him,  le- 
gally authenticated  by  Monf.  Blin,  lieutenant  judge,  given 
from  under  the  hand  of  Monf.  des  Effart,  king's  phyfici- 
an,  and  of  Monf  Cumin,  king's  furgeon,  at  Grandterre, 
Guadaloupe,  attefts  that  Adelaide  was  born  at  Gros-Iflet 
in  St.  Lucia,  that  Bridget  her  mother  is  a  negro  of  the  Ibo 
nation,  and  now  reckoned  to  be  about  twenty-five  years 
old,  and  that  her  father,  whofe  name  is  Raphael,  is  a  ne- 
gro of  the  Mina  nation.  In  this  certificate  it  is  farther 
declared  that  the  father  of  Jean  Pierre  has  white  fpots 
(that  is  of  a  deeper  white  than  his  natural  fkin)  of  the  fame 
ihape  and  in  the  fame  parts  of  the  body  as  the  fon,  and 
that  the  mother  and  one  of  the  brothers  of  this  boy's  Eu- 
ropean father  have  like  white  fpots,  and  in  the  fame  parts 
of  the  body. 

However  it  may  be  in  refpedl  to  thofe  obfervations  con- 
cerning the  fuppofed  refemblance  of  the  white  fpots  they 
may  bear  about  them,  to  thofe  which  mark  Jean  Pierre, 
it  fuffices  to  take  notice  here,  that  his  body  is  entirely  of 
the  colour  of  a  mulatto,  except  that  he  has  from  nature  a 
white  aigrette  in  his  forehead  like  that  of  Adelaide.  The 
hair  in  that  part  is  white  mixed  with  black,  which  is  not 
fo  in  Adelaide.  The  ftomach,  and  the  legs  from  two  inches 
above  the  ancles  to  the  middle  of  the  calf  of  the  legs  are 
entirely  of  a  beautiful  lively  white  ;  there  is  alfo  a  white 
Ipot  in  the  upper  part  of  the  penis.     Over  the  white  parts 

of 


PYE  NEGRO  GIRL  and  MULATTO  EOY.    395^ 

of  the  legs  there  is  a  light  white  down,  longer  and  thicker 
than  children  commonly  have  at  this  age. 

Such  is  the  natural  hiftory  of  thole  two  extraordinary 
children  ;  but  what  caufes  have  produced  thofe  furprifm^ 
phenomena  and  alteration  of  the  natural  colour  of  their 
fkin,  are  left  for  others  to  inveftigate  and  explain. 

Monf.  le  Vallois  relates  that  the  mother  of  Adelaide, 
•whilft  pregnant  with  her,  was  delighted  in  laying  out  all 
night  in  the  open  air,  and  contemplating  the  ftars  and 
planets,  and  that  the  great  grandmother  of  jean  Pierre  (a 
white  lady)  during  the  time  of  her  being  with  child  of  her 
daughter,  his  grandmother  by  the  father's  fide,  was  frii2,ht- 
ened  on  having  fome  milk  fpilled  upon  her.  Whether 
this  will  account  for  her  daughter  and  grandchildren  be- 
ing marked  in  the  manner  related,  and  for  the  fpots  ob- 
ferved  on  the-mulatto  boy  defcending  to  him;  or  whether 
the  ftrong  impreflion  made  upon  the  mother  of  Adelaide, 
by  the  nightly  view  of  the  liars  and  planetary  fyftem,  may- 
be confidered  as  the  caufe  of  the  very  extraordinary  ap- 
pearances in  that  girl,  every  one  will  determine  for  them- 
felves;  there  being  many  who  diipute  childrens  being  ever 
marked  by  the  fears,  longings,  or  impreffions  made  by 
mothers  on  the  bodies  of  their  children,  at  a  certain  time 
of  prey;nancy ;  for  which  they  endeavour  to  account  in 
different  ways  ;  whilft  others  who  have  known  a  variety 
of  children  born  with  different  marks  on  them,  (which. 
have  fallen  under  their  particular  notice)  are  equally  con- 
fident of  thofe  marks  proceeding  from  the  caufes  alledged.. 


ExtraH 


I  396  1 


N"  XLV. 

Extra^  of  a  Letter  from  Bernard  Romans,  of  Penfa- 
cola-t  dated  Augiijl  20y   1773. 

TH  E  common  manners  compafs  has  always  appeared 
to  accurate  obfervers  as  an  imperfeil  inftrument,  but 
In  nothing  has  it  proved  to  be  more  defedlive  than  in  its 
life  in  ftorms,  the  heaviefl  brafs  compaffes  now  in  ufe  are 
by  no  means  to  be  relied  on  in  a  hollow  or  high  fea. 
This  is  owing  to  the  box  hanging  in  two  brafs  rings  con- 
fining it  to  only  two  motions,  both  vertical,  and  at  right 
angles  with  each  other,  by  which  confinement  of  the  box 
upon  any  fuccuflion,  more  efpecially  fudden  ones,  the  card 
is  always  put  into  too  much  agitation,  and  before  it  can 
"well  recover  itfelf,  another  jerk  again  prevents  its  pointing 
to  the  pole,  nor  is  it  an  extraordinary  thing  to  fee  the  card 
unfhipped  by  the  violence  of  the  fliip's  pitching. 

All  thefe  inconveniencies  are  remedied  to  the  full  by 
giving  the  box  a  vertical  motion  at  every  degree  and  mi- 
nute of  the  circle,  and  to  compound  thefe  motions  with  a 
horizontal  one,  of  the  box,  as  well  as  of  the  card.  By  this 
unconfined  difpofition  of  the  box  the  effects  of  the  jerks 
on  the  card  are  avoided,  and  it  will  always  very  fteadily 
point  to  the  pole.  Experience  has  taught  me,  that  the 
card  not  only  is  not  in  the  fmalleft  degree  affedled  by  the 
hollow  fea,  but  even  in  all  the  violent  fhocks  and  whirl- 
ings the  box  can  receive,  the  card  lies  as  ftill  as  if  in  a 
room  unaffedted  by  the  leaft  motion. 

Lately  a  compafs  was  invented  and  made  in  Holland, 
■which  has  all  thefe  motions.  It  is  of  the  fize  of  the  com- 
mon brafs  compaffes,  the  bottom  of  the  brafs  box  inftead 
of  being  like  a  bowl,  muft  be  raifed  into  a  hollow  cone, 

like 


IMPROVEMENT  of  the  COMPASS.       397 

like  the  bottom  of  a  common  glafs  bottle  ;  the  vertex  of 
the  cone  muft  be  raifed  fo  high  as  to  leave  but  one  inch 
between  the  card  and  the  glais  ;  the  box  muft  be  of  the 
ordinary  depth,  and  a  quantity  of  lead  muft  be  poured  in 
the  bottom  of  the  lx)x  round  the  bafe  of  the  cone,  this  fe- 
cures  it  on  the  ftyle  whereon  it  traverfes. 

This  ftyle  is  firmly  fixed  in  the  center  of  a  fquare  wood- 
en box,  like  the  common  compafs,  except  that  it  requires 
a  thicker  bottom.  The  ftyle  muft  be  of  brafs  about  fix 
inches  long,  round  and  of  the  thicknefs  of  one-third  of 
an  inch,  its  head  blunt,  like  the  head  of  a  fewing  thimble 
but  of  a  good  poli(h  ;  the  ftyle  muft  ftand  perpendicular, 
the  inner  vertex  of  the  cone  muft  alfo  be  well  poliftied  ; 
the  vertical  part  of  the  cone  ought  to  be  thick  enough  to 
admit  of  a  well  poliihed  cavity  fufficient  to  admit  a  ftiort 
ftyle  proceeding  from  the  center  of  the  card  whereon  it 
traverfes.  The  compafs  I  faw  was  fo  conftrudled,  but  I 
fee  no  reafon  why  the  ftyle  might  not  proceed  from  the 
center  of  the  vertex  of  the  cone,  and  fo  be  received  by  the 
card  the  common  way.  The  needle  muft  be  a  magnetic 
bar  blunt  at  each  end  ;  the  glafs  and  cover  is  put  on  in 
the  common  way. 

A  compafs  of  this  kind  was  given  by  the  captain  of  a 
Dutch  man  of  war  to  Capt.  Burnaby  of  the  Zephyr  (loop  ; 
this  gentleman  gave  it  to  me  to  examine,  and  was  very 
profufe  in  his  encomiums  thereon,  faying  that  in  a  very 
hard  gale,  which  lafted  fome  days,  there  was  not  a  com- 
pafs but  it  of  any  fervice  at  all.  Indeed  to  me  it  appears 
to  dcferve  all  the  praife  he  gave  it.  My  ftay  is  fo  Ihort 
here,  as  not  to  allow  me  time  to  have  one  made  ;  but  I 
intend  to  have  one  made  for  my  own  ufe,  and  (hall  offer 
%  it  to  the  fociety  for  infpedion.  I  hope  that  this  ufeful 
inftrument  may  become  univerfal,  as  navigation  certainly 
will  be  rendered  more  fafe  through  its  means;  and  I  fliall 
think  myfelf  highly  honoured,  if  through  the  channel  of 
this  fociety  it  becomes  public. 

E  e  e  rrefmts 


Frefents  made  to  the  American  PJjilofophical  Society,  ftnce 
its  Revival  and  Incorporation  in  1780,  ivith  the  Names 
of  the  Donors. 


Do  NORS. 

1 780,  Apr.  7.  Dr.  Cofe^ 


Dec.  15.  Monf.  Chati- 
lauxf 

1 78 1,  Jan.    19.  Monf. 
de  Marboisi 


Feb.  1 6.  Gen.  Su/livav, 


Mar.   16.  Sam.  AJa/ns, 


Efq. 


1783,  Feb.  16.  Aflem- 
bly  of  the  State  of 
Pennfylvania, 

Mdiy  2.Mv.  J.  M'Henry, 


Presents. 

An  analytic,  etymologic,  and  ar- 
gumentative treatife  on  the 
accent  and  pronunciation  of 
the  Englifli  language. 

His  works  dc  la  felicite  pub- 
lique,  2  vol. 

A  pamphlet  in  French,  containing 
an  account  of,  and  propofals 
for  printing  a  vv'ork  of  great 
merit,  entitled  voyages  metal- 
lurgiques,  &c.    Par  M.  Jars. 

Specimens  of  talc,  from  a  large 
body  of  this  fofTil,  lately  dif- 
covered  in  New-Hampfhire. 

Copy  of  a  Philofophical  difcourfe 
delivered  before  the  academy 
of  arts  and  fciences  at  Bofton, 
by  their  prefident  James  Bow- 
doin,   Efq. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  pounds., 

A  curious  fpeclmen  of  petrified 
pine. 

Sept. 


DONATIONS. 

1783,         Donors.  Presents. 

Sept.  26.  Dt.FrankUny     Natural  hillory  ci  the  South  of 

France,  by  Monf.L'AbbeSou- 
lavie,  2  vols. 

Od.  1 7.  Mr.  John  Hy-     A    colledlon    of    Philofophical 
acinth  de  Magellany  trails,  &c. 

A  colledion  of  prints,  reprefent- 
ing  fome  of  the  principal 
events  during  the  late  revolu- 
tion in  America. 


Mr.  Godfrey, 


Abbe  de  Fontanay 


Dec.  5.  Mr.  Van  BerckeU 


Monf.  de  Etienncy 


Four  pamphlets  on  Philofophical 
fubjeds,  written  by  himfelf. 

Six  volumes  of  the  Tranfadions 
of  the  Batavian  Philofophical 
Society  of  Rotterdam. 

On  a  cement  impenetrable  by 
water. 


1 7<S4,  Jan.  1 6.  Mr.  John    A  colledion  of  fpecimens  of  the 


Feljled, 

Febru.  3.   Mr.  Warder, 
Mr.  Mandrillont 


feveral  woods  growing  in  the 
Lfland  of  Jamaica. 

A  colledion  of  animal  calculi. 

Voyageur  Americain. 

An  anfwer  to  the  queftion  pro- 
poled  by  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences at  Lyons,  viz.  Whether 
the  difcovery  of  America  has 
been  advantageous  to  mankind 
or  not  ?  both  written  by  him- 
felf. 


Feb. 


DONATIONS. 

17S4.         Donors.  Presents. 

'Sch.  20.  Semite!  Vaugh-     A3'-  feet  acromatic   tclelcope, 
aih  Efquire,  completely  mounted  on  a  ma- 

hogany ftand,  with  rack  work 
to  move  it  along  the  meridian, 
or  parallel  to  the  equator,  made 
by  Mr.  Dolland. 

A  Gunter's  fcale  improved,  for 
navigation  and  aftronomy,  hj 
Mr.  John  Robertfon,  with  a 
defcription  thereof  by  Mr. 
Mountaine. 

A  magazine  microfcope,  confift- 
ing  of  a  fingle,  double,  and 
folar  microfcope. 

Mr.  William  Parker  by     A  burning  lens  1 1 1  inches,  with 
Mr.  5.  Vaugbauy  a  fecond  lens  of  6i  inches  di- 

ameter, completely  framed  and 
mounted  on  a  mahogany  turn- 
ed cone,  with  rack  work,  pil- 
lar, pinnion  and  apparatus  for 
placing  the  whole  in  a  proper 
fituation. 

March  19.  Dr.  Franklin^    A  treatife  in  French,  on  the  fub- 

je£t  of  air  balloons. 

Samuel  Vaughan^  Efq.        A  copy   in    manufcript   of  Dr. 

Priertley's  experiments  on 
phlogifton,  and  the  feeming 
converfion  of  water  into  air. 

Apr.  2.  Mr._7.r<:z«^^rtK,,    Dr.  Priertley's  works,  complete 

in  T^T^  volumes. 
Dr.  Priertley's  biographical  and 
hiftorical  charts. 

April 


DONATIONS. 

1784.         Donors.  Presents. 

April  g.  Samuel  Faugh-     Dr.  Price  on  reverfionary  pay- 
fl«}  Efq.  ments,  annuities,  &c.  2  vols. 

Tranfadions   of  the   fociety  of 

arts,  &c.  1783,   17B4. 
Trads  publifhed  by  the  fociety 
forconftitutional  information^ 

1783: 
Proceedings  at  Quebec,  1773. 
Lind  on  difeafes  incident  to  hot 

climates. 
Plinii  fecundi  hift.  nat. 
Antiquitates  Romance. 
Rowe's  fluxions. 
Gregory's  pradical  geometry. 
Hamilton   on   vapours  and   the 

aurora  borealis. 

April  16.  Dr.  Cb/?^,  Eight  copies  of  his  inaugural  o- 

ration,  delivered  in  the  college 
of  William  &  Mary,  Virginia. 

Odl.   15.  Rev.  Jeremy     The  firft  volume  of  his  hiftory 
Belknap,  of  New-Hampfhire. 

1784,  Nov.  12.  Dr.  M.     A  filver  medal  in  memory  of  the 
Guthey  Pvev.  Chriflian  Meyer  of  Hei- 

delburg,  late  a  member  of  this 
Society.. 


19.  Chev.  d'  Ar-     A  pamphlet  in  manufcript,   on 

mours,  the  fubje£t  of  animal  magne- 

tifm,  by  Dr.  P.  Hervier,  of  the 
Sorbonne. 

Dec.  9.  Monf.  de  Mar-     Report  of  the  commiffioners  ap- 
hois.^  pointed  by  the  king  of  France, 

to  examine  into  the  merit  of 

Dr. 


DONATIONS. 

Donors.  Prksents. 

Dr.  Mefmer's  late  dlfcoveries 
of  animal  magnetifm. 

1785,    Jan.    22.    Mr.     An  elegant  copy  of  his  work  en- 
Mandrillony  titled  le  fpedlateur  Americain. 

Mar.  4.  Mr.  W.  Henry^     The  model  of  a  wheel  carriage, 

to  run  againft  the  wind  by  the 
force  of  the  wind  alone. 

Two  very  large  pieces  of  chry- 
ftal  found  in  Lancafter  county. 

An  exceedingly  large  tufk  and 
one  of  the  grinders  of  fome 
unknown  fpecies  of  animals, 
brought  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Ohio. 

Aflembly  of  the  State     A  lot  of  ground  in  the  State- 
of  Pennfylvania-t  houfe  fquare,  on  which  to  ere£t 

a  building  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  Society. 

Mrs.  Paulh  A  horn  of  the  Canada  moofe  deer 

of  an  extraordinary  fize. 

July  15.  Rev.  Mr.  Muh-    A  manufcrlpt  copy  of  his  Flora 
knbergy  Lancajirienis. 

Dr.  Noely  Three  volumes  of  the  proceed- 

ings of  the  Royal  French  A- 
cademy. 
An   elegant   eledrical  machine, 
with  the  neceflary  apparatus. 

Sept.  27.  Dr.  T.  Redmauy  Specimens  of  the  Eaft-India  man- 
ner of  writing,  on  long  ftrips 
of  the  leaves  of  the  cocoa  nut 
tree. 

Monf. 


DONATIONS, 

1785.        Donors.  Presents. 

Sept.  27.   Monf.  C.  L.     A  colledlionofhis  botanical  prints 
d* Heritier^  with  their  defcription,  in  Latin. 

Decern.  2.  Dr.  Hutton^     His  large  tables  of  logarithms,  &c. 

Three  pamphlets,  containing  the 
hiftory  of  the  late  debates  ia 
the  Royal  Society. 

'N[r.Sa7}i.Vaughan,]nn.     Four  pamphlets  in  the  German 

language,  containing  new  dif- 
coveries  in  chemiftry. 

Mr.  Ed.  HuJfeyDelavaU    His  enquiry  into  the  caufe  of  the 

permanent  colours  of  opaque 
bodies,  8vo. 

Arthur  Toung,  Efq.  His  annals  of  agriculture. 

Mr.  Warvilh  His  tableau  des  fciences  &  arts, 

Mr.  J.  H.  de  Magellan^     Botanlca  charadteriftica,  by  Dr- 

Wolf  of  Dantzick. 

A  remonftrance  againft  Voltaire, 
by  Mr.  Needham. 

Lettre  du  Pekin,  on  the  Chinefe 
language. 

Elements  of  mineralogy,  by  Ri- 
chard Kerwin,  Efq. 

Medical  virtues  of  digitalis  pur- 
purea, or  fox-glove,  by  Dr. 
Withering  of  Manchefter. 

Twelve  copies  of  his  pamphlet 
on  the  glafs  apparatus  and  eu- 
diometer, third  edition. 

Propofals  of  Mr.  Taylor,  for 
printing  a  table  of  logarithms 
and  of  lines,  tangents,  &c.  to 
every  fecond  of  the  quadrant. 

Mr. 


DONATIONS. 


1785.         Donors.  Presents. 

Sept.  27.   Mr.  J.  H.  de     Count  Brahl's  account  of  the  go- 


Magellan^ 


Samuel  Vaughan,  Efq. 


Dec.  16.   Mr.  Cha.  W. 
Peaki 


1786,  Jan.  20. 
MarJhalU 


Mr.n. 


June.  Dr.  Ed.  Waring, 
by  Mr.  S.  Faugban, 


ing  of  Mr.  Emery's  new  chro- 
nometer for  the  pocket,  which 
fcarce  differs  twofeconds  from 
mean  time  in  24  hours.  Price 
90  guineas,  in  a  filver  cafe. 
An  account  of  a  new  hydroftatic 
balance,  by  Mr.  Nicholfon. 

Defcriptions  of  ufeful  machines 
and  models  of  the  fociety  (in 
London)  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  arts,  manufactures 
and  commerce,  illuftrated  with 
copper  plate  defigns,  2  vols, 
folio,  laft  edition. 

Memoirs  of  the  American  aca- 
demy  of  arts   and    fciences, 

4°  1785. 

An  elegant  portrait  of  Do£tor 
Franklin. 

His  book,  entitled,  an  alphabe- 
tical arrangement  of  the  foreft 
trees,  &c.  of  North-America. 

Meditationes  algebraicse. 
Mifcellanea  analytica,  de  sequa- 

tionibus  algebraicis,  et  curva- 

rum  proprietatibus. 
Meditationes  analytics. 
Proprietates  algebraicum  curva- 

rum. — All  written  byhimfelf. 


Fff 


The 


DONATIONS. 

The  foUoiv'ing  Donations  ivere  received  through  the  hands 
of  Dr.  Franklin. 

1786.         Donors.  Presents. 

June.  Monf.  the  Count     His  colledion  of  birds,  beauti- 


de  BiiffoHy 

Dr.  FothergilU 
Lord  Stayihope-, 

Signior  Manini, 
Monf.  Grively 


fully  engraved  and  coloured. 
Supplement  al'hifloire  naturelle, 
5  tome,  4°. 

lUuftratio  fyftematls  fexualis  Lin- 
ne32,  per  Johannes  Miller. 

Roberti  Simfon,  M.  D.  opera  re- 
liqua.    4°. 

Le  lettere  Americane,  3  vols.  1 2°. 

L'ifle  inconnue,  ou  memoires  du 
Chev.des  Gaftines,  4  vols.  1 2°. 

Mr.  J.  H.  de  Magellan^     His  coUeftion,  dedifferenstraites 

fur  des  inftruments  d'aftrono- 
mie,  phifique,  &c. 

Extrait  d'une  lettre  de  M.  Ma- 
gellan fur  une  pendule  de  fon 
invention. 

Defcription  d'une  machine  nou- 
velle  de  dynamique,  &c. 

Nouvelle  conflrudion  d'alambic 
pour  faire  toute  forte  de  diftil- 
lation  en  grande,  avec  le  plus 
d'economie  dans  I'operation, 
et  le  plus  d'avantage  dans  le 
refultat. 


M.  Court  de  Gebelin, 
The  Author, 


Monde  primitif  compare  avec  le 
monde  moderne,  i  vol.  4°. 

Le  triomphe  du  nouveau  monde, 
reponfes    academiques,     for- 

mant 


DONATIONS. 


1786.     Donors. 


June.      M.   EUe  de 
Bccmmont-, 


Fere  Berth'ier^ 


Monf.  Mefmer. 


Monf.  L^Abbe  Siins^ 


Dr.  Ingenhaiifsy 


Marcus  Lemort  De- 
mehgny^ 


Monf.  Gerhier-i 


Presents. 
mant  un  nouveau  fyfteme  de 
confederation,  fonde  fur  les 
befoins  adtuels  des  nations 
chrctiens-commercantes,  et  a- 
dapte  a  leurs  diverfes  formes 
de  gouvernement,  2  vols.  8°. 

Memoire  pour  Dame  Marie  Reine 
Petit  de  la  Burthe,  Marquife  d'An- 
glure,  centre  le  Sieur  Pierre  Petit. 

Hiftoire  de  premiere  temps  du 
monde,   8vo. 

Precis  hiftorique  de  faits  relatifs  an 
magnetifme  animal,  i  vol.  8vo. 
fix  copies. 

Guerifon  de  la  paralyfie  par  I'elec- 
tricite,   8°. 

Ingen-Haufz  vermifchte  fchriften, 
1784,   2  vols.  8vo, 

Obfervations  fur  la  conftrudion  et 
I'ufage  de  I'eudiometre  du  M.  Fon- 
tana, — botb  written  by  himfelf. 

Tentamen  +yxo  -  zhmato-  lATprKON 
feu  confpedlus  thefiformis  de  na- 
tura  animse  et  corporis,  &c.  writ- 
ten by  himfelf.. 

Lettres  et  obfervations  de  M.  Ger- 
bier,  dodteur  en  medicine,  I'un  des 
medicins  de  monfieur  fervant  par 
quartier,  au  fujet  de  deux  nou- 
veaux  remedes,contre  les  maladies 
fquirrheufes,  cancereufes,  &c. 

Fere 


DONATIONS. 

1786.     Donors.  Presents. 

June.  Pere  Beccaria,    Delia  eledricita  terreftre  atmofferl- 

ca  a  cielo   fereno,  offervazioni  di 
Giambatifta  Beccaria. 


Sundry  other  hooks^  given  by  different  perfons^  ivill  be  men-- 
tioned  in  the  lijl  to  be  piiblijljed  in  the  next  volume. 


END    OF   THE    SECOND    VOLUME. 


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